RIG DON'S GRAMMAR tt LANGUAGE COURSE 




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RAMMAR ESSENTIALS 

FOR THE 

HIGH SCHOOL 



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Class I 

Book 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSE 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS 



FOE THE 



HIGH SCHOOL 



BY 



JONATHAN RIGDON, Ph.D. 

PRESIDENT OF WINONA COLLEGE, AND AUTHOR OF 

" GRAMMAR FOR THE GRADES " AND " GRAMMAR OF THE 

ENGLISH SENTENCE " 



NEW YORK CITY, 1ST. Y. 
HINDS, NOBLE AND ELDREDGE 





RIGDON'S 


Grammar of the 


English Sentence. 85 cents. 


Grammar Essentials for the High School. 75 cents. 


Grammar for the 


Grades (two books). $1.00. 


Book I (for 


Beginners). 40 cents. 


Book II (for 


Common School). 60 cents. 


INONA LAKE, INDIANA 


INDIANA 


PUBLISHING COMPANY 



Copyright, 1912, 
By JONATHAN RIGDON. 



Norfajootr $ress 

J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



eCI.A319051 



CONTENTS 

PAGE8 

Introduction 7 

Capitals, Punctuation 11-12 

Parts of Speech 15 

Subjects, Verbs, Objects 18 

Predicate-Attributes, Complements 19 

Definitions, Sentences 20 

Sentences, Phrases, Clauses 20-26 

The Noun . 30 

The Pronoun 53 

The Adjective 84 

The Verb . . 93 

The Adverb 129 

The Preposition 138 

The Conjunction 142 

The Interjection . . . . 148 

Rules of Syntax 148 

Infinitives and Participles ....... 151 

Analysis 171 



INDEX. 



(a) The book discusses many specific topics not listed in the Index. These the pupil 
will readily find by turning- to the general heads under which they belong. 
(£>) Unless otherwise specified, all numbers refer to sections. 



A. 

Absolute Constructions, 173, 279. 

Adjective, 37, 45, 282-312. 

Adverb, 38, 410-443. 

Adverbial Objective, 185. 

Agreement of Pronouns, 280, 281. 

Analysis, 10, 541-605. 

Antecedent, 205, 229, 230, 244, 245, 449. 

Apposition, 172, 190, 272-277. 

Attribute, 32, 267-271. 

Attributive Complement, 66-75, 188, 

267-271. 
Attributive Verbs, 322-324. 
Auxiliary and Principal Verbs, 342- 

350. 

c. 

Capitals, 16. 
Case, 52, 157-194. 
Classes of Adjectives, 284-293. 
Classes of Adverbs, 416-436. 
Classes of Clauses, 105-115, 552-558. 
Classes of Conjunctions, 461-470. 
Classes of Elements, 571-597. 
Classes of Nouns, 121-130. 
Classes of Phrases, 91-104. 
Classes of Prepositions, 446. 
Classes of Pronouns, 201-206,214-233. 
Classes of Sentences, 76-90, 548-570. 
Classes of Verbs, 315-350. 
Clauses, 105-115, 237-241. 
Comparison, 54. 
Comparison of Adjectives, 294-301, 

308-311. 
Comparison of Adverbs, 437, 438. 
Complements, 66-75, 267-271, 515, 516. 
Conjugation, 54, 340, 341, 402. 
Conjunction, 40, 457-478. 
Conjunctive or Relative Pronouns, 

225-254. 



Connectives, 243, 427, 428, 432-436. 
Construction, 55 (6), 160-194. 
Copula, 32, 169-171. 
Copulative Verbs, 169, 322-324. 



Declension, 54, 194, 207, 233. 
Diagrams, 598-601. 
Direct Object, 181. 
Divisions of Grammar, 6-11. 



Errors, 5. 
Etymology, 11. 
Expression, 27. 



F. 



Factitive Object, 186. 

Field of Grammar, 14. 

Finite and Infinite Verbs, 165-168. 

G. 

Gender, 52, 149-156. 
Grammar, 1-14. 



Impression, 27. 
Indirect Object, 182 c. 
Infinitive, 44 (a), 377, 396, 483-540. 
Infinitive Verbs, 165-168, 483-540. 
Inflection, 54, 401, 402, 
Interjection, 41, 49, 479-482. 
Interrogative Pronouns, 214-224. 



Language, 2-5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 29, 30. 



INDEX. 



M. 
Mode, 53, 35^-356, 364-377. 

N. 

Nominative Case, 279. 

Nominative Constructions, 163, 173, 

279. 
Noun, 34, 42, 119-197. 
Number, 51, 134-148, 307. 

O. 

Object, 57-75. 

Object of a Passive Verb, 191, 263 c. 
Object of a Preposition, 265, 266, 448. 
Object of a Transitive Verb, 263, 264. 
Objective by Enallage, 192. 
Objective Case, 179. 
Objective Complement, 66-75, 188. 
Objective Constructions, 180. 
Objective without a Governing word, 
185. 



Parsing, 55, 56. 

Parsing of Adjectives, 302-304. 

Parsing of Adverbs. 439-441. 

Parsing of Conjunctions, 471-475. 

Parsing of Infinitives and Parti- 
ciples, 538-540. 

Parsing of Nouns, 195-197. 

Parsing of Pronouns, 207-211, 220-222, 
250-253. 

Parsing of Verbs, 403-408. 

Participle, 44 (a), 168, 377, 397, 483-540. 

Parts of a Sentence, 31, 32, 571-576. 

Parts of Speech, 33-50, 119. 

Person, 51, 132, 133, 207, 317, 318. 

Personal Pronouns, 206. 

Phrase, 91-104. 

Possessive Case, 174-178, 278. 

Possessive Constructions, 175. 

Predicate, 31, 32. 

Predicate Attribute, 61-75. 

Predicate Nouns, 169-171. 

Preposition, 39, 47, 444-456. 

Principal and Auxiliary Verbs, 342- 
350. 

Pronoun, 35, 43, 198-254. 

Properties of Nouns, 131-197. 

Properties of the Parts of Speech, 
50-54. 



Properties of Pronouns, 207. 
Properties of Verbs, 351-402. 
Punctuation, 17-26. 

R. 

Reality, Thought and Language, 14, 

15, 28-30. 
Regular and Irregular Verbs, 325- 

341. 
Relation of a Preposition, 447-449. 
Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns, 

225-254. 
Resultant Object, 186. 
Reviews, pages 26, 50, 80, 91, 126, 136, 

141, 147, 169, 202. 
Rules of Syntax, page 148. 

S- 

Sentence, 15, 28, 29, 76-90, 548-570. 
Sentences for Analysis, 602. 
Shall, Should, Will, Would, 350. 
Sign of the Infinitive, 531-533. 
Strong and Weak Verbs, 337-339. 
Style, 400. 
Subject, 31, 57-60. 
Subject of a Finite Verb, 255. 
Subject of an Infinitive, 187, 256, 

506-511. 
Subject of a Participle, 258-262, 512- 

514. 
Substantive, 120. 
Synopsis, 54. 
Syntax, 8, 255-281, 305-312, 409, 442, 

443, 454, 476-478. 
Synthesis, 8, 9. 



Tense, 53, 357, 378-398. 

Thought, Reality, and Language, 14, 

15, 28-30. 
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, 

319-321. 

U. 

Unit of Language, 28. 
V. 

Verb, 44, 57-60, 313-409. 
Voice, 53, 352, 359-363. 

W. 

Weak and Strong Verbs, 337-339. 
Will, Would, Shall, Should, 350. 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS 

FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. Much of Grammar may be understood in the grades, 
some of it is sufficiently difficult to be interesting to 
college students, its essentials — all its general principles 
together with their applications — must be mastered in 
the high school. 

2. It has been the aim to keep broadly at least within 
the title, — to set forth only the essentials. As to what 
these are there may be honest difference of opinion. In 
determining what are essentials, these four things have 
been kept in mind : (1) The high school student must be 
able to point to principles that will justify or condemn the 
English expressions in his own language and that of 
others. (2) He must have such a mastery of the structure 
of the English sentence as will enable him readily — almost 
unconsciously — to grasp its message wherever he meets 
it and in any of its various forms. (3) He must master 
the terminology of the subject so that, if necessary, he may 
take part in grammatical discussion, and also, that he 
may not be too greatly handicapped if he should under- 
take the study of another language, which always 
presupposes a mastery of the grammar of the mother 
tongue. (4) The subject should be so presented that the 
student may achieve that mental discipline — thought 

7 



8 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

efficiency — which the proper study of grammar so 
admirably imparts. 

3. Unlike literature, grammar makes but slight appeal 
to the emotions ; it lacks that largeness of conception to 
be had from history ; it cannot develop the consecutive 
reasoning required in mathematics. Grammar, never- 
theless, develops a form of thought efficiency that, in 
connection with those named above, is well worth while. 
It includes careful observation, accuracy and definiteness 
of conception or mental definition, close discrimination, 
mental alertness, ready inference, and a critical habit 
of mind, — helpful in all forms of investigation and 
indispensable in enabling one to take care of himself in 
discussion. 

4. Teachers and advanced students wishing a more 
detailed discussion of the subject will find it in the 
Grammar of the English Sentence. Grade pupils for whom 
this book is too difficult will find a simpler and briefer 
presentation in Rigdon's Grammar for the Grades, Books 
I and IL 

5. Two errors are common. One is the supposition 
that a mastery of the principles of grammar will of itself 
insure correct speech. It will not. It must be supple- 
mented by reading good language and by hearing it spoken 
by others. And then in addition to this there must be a 
large share of pride in the ability to use correct language. 
Without this pride in correct speech, yes, unless one is 
ashamed to speak incorrectly, he may master the whole 
subject of grammar merely as an intellectual achievement 
without correcting any of his errors in language. The 
other error, infinitely more mischievous, is the claim that 
grammar plays no part whatever in one's ability to speak 
correctly. This contention is made by many newspaper 
editors, and is held as a theory by many educators who 



THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 9 

have never taught school. They tell us to cultivate an 
ear for language. This is good, but not enough. Sup- 
pose one should hesitate — and who does not hesitate oc- 
casionally ? — what is to determine his procedure ? I 
answer, a grammatical principle. Why not let the ear 
decide by the sound ? Ears are not all alike, and then 
two expressions may sound equally good when one of 
them is intolerable. Take the two expressions, between 
you and me and between you and I. Everybody knows 
that the wrong one is preferred by many cultivated ears. 
No one, so far as I know, advocates the teaching of music 
exclusively by ear ; and yet there is much better reason 
for it than for teaching language exclusively by ear. No 
one ignorant of grammar can speak correctly and with 
assurance. He must always be the victim of uncertainty. 
When one is in doubt as to sentential form, only a gram- 
matical principle can satisfy him. 

THE DIVISIONS OF GEAMMAE. 

6. Divisions of Grammar. — Since the sentence is made 
up of words which may have different grammatical forms, 
and be differently arranged with reference to one another, 
there arise two divisions of Grammar : Etymology and 
Syntax. 

7. It appears, then, that Grammar has but two divi- 
sions : Syntax and Grammatical Etymology. 

8. Syntax is that division of Grrammar which treats of the 
construction of the sentence. It comprises synthesis and 
analysis. 

9. Synthesis is such a combination of parts as will form a 
sentence. 

10. Analysis is such a separation of the sentence as will 
show the relation of its parts. 



10 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

11. Grammatical Etymology is that division of Grammar 
which treats of the classification, use, and properties of words. 

12. All Grammar is Technical. — Grammar is made up 
of facts, definitions, and principles or laws. These are 
always technical. By practical grammar is meant the ap- 
plication of principles to language. Language is the art 
of which grammar is the corresponding science. 

13. Grammar and Literature are closely connected, but 
should not be taught together. Literature has to do with 
the general fitness of expression ; grammar, with only one 
phase of this fitness, its correctness. Literature busies 
itself with aesthetic appreciation and presupposes gram- 
mar. Grammar may be learned very successfully in con- 
nection with literary selections, but it is always at the 
expense of the literature. Grammar should be a separate 
study, and should be well understood before much headway 
can be made in the way of literature. The consciousness 
that busies itself about formal correctness is antagonistic 
to that which seeks artistic appreciation. The order is, — 
Language, Q-rammar, Literature. 

14. The Field of Grammar is the sentence. Sentences 
express thoughts, which we deal with in logic and 
psychology. Thoughts are about reality, which we study 
in physics, chemistry, physiology, geography, history, etc. 
Here are three closely related fields, which must be care- 
fully distinguished. (1) There is the field of reality, 
the world of objects, which is altogether independent of 
our thinking. (2) There is the field of thought, occa- 
sioned by the reality but independent of its expression. 
(3) There is the field of expression or language, dependent 
upon thought, which in turn is dependent upon reality. 
Here it would be well for the pupils and teacher to give 
several specific illustrations of the three fields as distinct 
yet related. 



CAPITALS. 11 

Reality Thought Expression 

The tree shelters the cow. 




15. For illustration, — and since we cannot bring real 
fields and trees and cattle into a book we are obliged to 
resort to illustration, — let us think of the large T to the 
left as a real tree and of C as a real cow receiving from the 
tree whatever protection she has from the weather. Here, 
then, we have two real objects in relation to each other. 
Now let the circle represent the consciousness of some 
person perceiving the relation of the tree and the cow. 
Let the Tc within the circle be his apprehension of the 
relation. This is a thought. A thought is the mental rep- 
resentation of the relation of things. Now, when this per- 
son has occasion to express his thought, the words to the 
right will be the result. They constitute a sentence. A 
sentence is the expression of a thought. Let each member 
of the class step to the board and give an illustration of 
the three fields, Reality, Thought, Expression, using differ- 
ent objects. 

CAPITALS. 

16. A Capital Letter should begin: — 

(1) The first ivord of every sentence. 

(2) The first word of every line of poetry. 

(3) The first word of every direct quotation. 

(4) All proper nouns and proper adjectives. 

(5) Names of things personified. 

(6) Names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year ; but 
not of the seasons. 

(7) All words used as titles or particular names. 

(8) Names of the Supreme Being. 

(9) The pronoun I, the interjection O, and single letters forming 
abbreviations should be capitals. 



12 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



PUNCTUATION. 

17. Punctuation is the art of indicating the construction of 
the different parts of a sentence. 

18. A. Terminal Marks. 

The period . . . . (.) 
The interrogation mark . . (?) 
The exclamation mark . . (!) 

19. The Period is used at the end of a declarative or an 
imperative sentence. 

(a) The period is used within a sentence after all abbreviations, after 
any expression used as a heading, and after figures or letters used to mark 
the sections or parts of a production. 

20. The Interrogation Mark is used at the end of an 
interrogative sentence. 

(a) The interrogation mark may be used after any word in the sen- 
tence to denote uncertainty or to imply the opposite of what is expressed. 

21. The Exclamation Mark is used at the end of an ex- 
clamatory sentence. 

(a) It is often used within a sentence, after an interjection or any 
other exclamatory word. 

22. B. Marks used within the Sentence- 

The comma . . . . (,) 
The semicolon . . . . (;) 
The colon . . . . (:) 

(a) Only those most frequently used and only the principal uses of 
each are named here. 

23. General Rule for the Comma. — Use a comma when 
the omission of it would render the construction of some 
part of the sentence obscure. 

1. To separate elements having the same construction: — 

Intelligence, integrity, industry, are the elements of success. 
Our hopes and fears, pleasures and pains, make up the interesting 
side of life. 



PUNCTUATION. 13 

From night till morning, from morning till night, she whiled her 
miserable life away. 

When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I 
thought as a child. 

Exception. — When two elements are closely connected by a conjunc- 
tion, no comma is needed; as, ''Learning expands and elevates the 
mind." 

2. To set off appositive, explanatory, parenthetical, or 
introductory words, phrases, or clauses: — 

Dickens, the great novelist, is a teacher of human nature. 
The mind, which studies all things, should study itself most. 
He who can think, and all can do that, need not be lonely. 
To speak plainly, I do not care to associate with him. 

3. To mark the omission of a verb : — 

The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool, what he abounds in. 

24. General Rule for the Semicolon. — Use a semicolon be- 
tween elements less closely connected than those separated by 
a comma. 

lit is the first point of wisdom to avoid evil ; the second, to make it good. 
Improve every minute ; for time lost is lost forever. 

25. General Rule for Colon. — The colon is used to precede 

a supplemental or explanatory remark. 

I admire the sublime passage : " God said let there be light, and there 
was light. ' ' 

26. Exercises in Punctuation and Capitalization. 

I. Observe closely the capitals and punctuation of every- 
thing you read. 

II. Punctuate and capitalize correctly every sentence you 
write. 

27. Impression and Expression. — Through contact with 
nature and our associates we are constantly receiving 
impressions. As a result of our social natures we wish to 
impart these to other persons. We do it chiefly through 
the medium of language, and the process by which it is 



14 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

done is expression. Impression must always be in ad- 
vance, but expression should follow close behind. The 
two are complementary processes and should be developed 
together. Expression without impression is impossible, and 
impression without expression is worthless. 

28. The unit of language is the portion of it that is 
necessary to express a thought. It is called a sentence. 
A sentence is the expression of a thought. 

29. This is the order : (1) Two things must be in 
relation. This is a reality. (2) Some mind may appre- 
hend this relation. This is a thought. (3) Then the 
thought may be expressed in language. This expression 
is a sentence. 

30. For illustration, a pig may be in the pantry, — a 
reality. The cook's apprehension of the situation is a 
thought. The expression of this apprehension so that 
another may grasp the situation — " A pig is in the 
pantry " — is a sentence. Let the class give other illustra- 
tions of these three steps. 

31. Parts of a Sentence. — It may readily be seen that 
every sentence includes (1) the part that expresses what 
the predication (affirmation, assertion) is made about, 
and (2) the predication that is made. These are called 
respectively the subject and the predicate. Thus in, 
Mary writes, Mary is the subject, and writes is the 
predicate. 

32. The predicate always has a double function, — 
(1) copulative by which it connects to the subject an 
attributive element, and (2) attributive by which it ex- 
presses the attributive element that is joined to the sub- 
ject. In the sentence, •" Mary writes," both of these 
functions are performed by the word writes; but in the 
sentence, " Mary is a writer" the two functions of the 
predicate have separate words: Mary is the subject; is 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

writer is the predicate, of which is is the copula and writer 
is the attribute. 

PAETS OF SPEECH. 

33. By parts of speech we mean classes of words according 
to their uses in sentences. 

34. Noun. — Words may be used to name objects ; as 
Illinois, Mrs. Livermore, state, woman, city, Indianapolis. 
These are nouns. 

35. Pronoun. — Words may be used to designate objects 
without naming them ; as, I, he, we, us, them, who, that. 
These are pronouns. 

36. Verb. — A large class of words is used to assert or 
assume attributes ; as, is, run, are, sing, to be, to run, sing- 
ing. Such words are verbs. 

37. Adjective. — Again it may be necessary to express 
attributes without asserting, assuming, or naming them ; 
as, good, old, beautiful, several. These are adjectives. 

38. Adverb. — Other words express attributes of attri- 
butes or a mode of mental connection ; as, rapidly, slowly, 
certainly. All such words are adverbs. 

39. Preposition. — Other words express relation with- 
out either asserting or assuming it and exert a governing 
power over nouns and pronouns called their objects ; as, 
by, on, to, with, between. These words are prepositions. 

40. Conjunction. — Another class of words, lacking such 
governing power, is used to express relation without 
asserting or assuming it ; as, and, or, if. Such words are 
conjunctions. 

41. Interjection. — Then a final class of words is used 
to express the feelings that come in between our thoughts; 
as, ah, oh, 0. These are interjections. 

42. A noun is the name of an object : — 

George is from the state of Wyoming. 



16 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

43. A pronoun is the part of speech that is used to des- 
ignate objects without naming them : — 

He brought it for us. 

Who is he that spoke to her about me ? 

44. The verb is the part of speech that asserts or assumes 

attributes : — 

He paints pictures. He is a painter of pictures. 

He wishes them to be happy. The boy sitting by you is Bob. 

(a) Words that assert attributes are finite verbs ; words that assume 
attributes are infinitives or participles. 

45. The adjective is the part of speech that expresses at- 
tributes without asserting, assuming, or naming them : — 

An industrious boy may accomplish a difficult task in a short time. 

46. The adverb is the part of speech that expresses either 
an attribute of an attribute or a mode of mental connec- 
tion : — 

He came slowly. Certainly, he came. 

(a) Adverbs commonly express attributes of attributes. Those that do 
may be called common adverbs. The few adverbs that express the mode 
of mental connection are called modal adverbs. 

47. The preposition is the part of speech that expresses 
relation without affirming it and exerts a governing power 
over nouns and pronouns : — 

He came with Paul and me. She spoke to Peter and us. 

48. The conjunction is the part of speech that lacks a 
governing power and expresses relation without asserting or 
assuming it : — 

Paul and I came with him. We spoke but she did not. 

49. The interjection is the part of speech that expresses 
feelings that come between or in connection with thoughts: — 

You are there. Ha ! I shall go away. 



PARSING. 17 

PEOPEETIES OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

50. Property of a part of speech is any modification of its 
force in the sentence. 

51. Person and Number are properties of nouns, pro- 
nouns, and finite verbs. 

52. Gender and Case are properties of nouns and pro- 
nouns. 

53. Voice, Mode, and Tense are properties of verbs. 

(a) Prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections have no grammatical 
properties. 

54. Inflection is any variation in the form of a part of 
speech to denote grammatical property. It may be (1) by 
a change in the ending, (2) by different words, (3) by 
the use of auxiliary verbs. 

(a) Sometimes the property of a word is indicated by its position in 
the sentence. 

(1) Declension is inflection of nouns and pronouns. 

(2) Comparison is inflection of adjectives and adverbs. 

(3) Conjugation, Synopsis, or Inflection is of verbs. 

PASSING. 

55. Parsing is naming in order the part of speech to 
which a word belongs, its class, its properties, its construction, 
and the rule governing the construction. 

(a) Parsing is a good exercise for enabling us to distinguish the parts 
of speech and to determine their relation, but it should not be overdone 
to the neglect of more valuable exercises, such as the formation of original 
sentences to illustrate the different constructions. 

(6) The construction of a word is its dependence upon some other 
word, its government. 

56. For the abridged parsing of all the parts of speech 
this model will answer : (1) Part of Speech, (2) Con- 
struction, (3) Rule. For rules, see pages 152-154. 



18 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

SUBJECTS, AGENTS; VEEBS, ACTIONS; OBJECTS. 

57. These distinctions are fundamental and must be 
carefully marked. In the sentence, Martha broke the 
plate, the word broke is the verb, its subject is the word 
Martha, and its object the word plate. It must be seen 
that this sentence refers to an act. The verb expresses 
the act, the subject of the verb expresses the agent (or sub- 
ject} of the act, and the object of the verb expresses the 
object of the act. Again, the act is represented in 
thought. The subject of this thought is an idea of the 
agent, or real subject; the object of the thought is the 
idea of the object of the act, and the thought itself unites 
the two. 

58. From this we see that we have three kinds of sub- 
jects and three kinds of objects : Subject and object of an 
act, subject and object of a thought, and subject and 
object of a verb. If our language is to be accurate, we 
must be sure in every case what subject and what object we 
are referring to. Also, we must be careful to distinguish 
(1) the real action, (2) the thought activity uniting the 
two ideas, and (3) the verb. 

59. The object of a verb always expresses the object of 
an action; but as we shall better understand later, the 
object of an action is not always represented by the object 
of a verb, but sometimes by its subject ; and the agent of 
an action is not always represented by the subject of a 
verb, but sometimes by the object of a preposition. 

60. With reference to the statements made above, dis- 
cuss the following sentences: — 

(1) Hazel lost the letter. 

(2) The tree was struck by lightning. 

(3) Jefferson taught Democracy. 

(4) The house was built by the carpenter. 



COMPLEMENTS. 19 

PEEDIOATE-ATTEIBUTES AND OBJECTS. 

61. Attribute, as a language term, is any attributive 
expression; that is, the expression of an attribute or group 
of attributes : — The man is j lonora ^i em 

The man is a merchant. 

62. Object, as used in Grammar, is any expression com- 
pleting a transitive verb and denoting the recipient of an 
action. Tk e man admires honesty. 

We like the merchant. 

63. A Predicate-Attribute is any attributive expression that 

completes a copulative verb. 

64. An Object is any expression that completes a transitive 
verb and denotes the recipient of an action. 

(a) A predicate-attribute is always an adjective or a noun, or an 
expression so used. 

(5) An object is always a noun or an expression so used ; that is, it 
is always a substantive. 

65. Distinguish the predicate-attributes and objects in, — 

(1) Truth is commendable. (4) We are without money. 

(2) Tom is a horse. (5) It is surprising. 

(3) Tom has a horse. (6) He is surprising us. 

COMPLEMENTS. 

66. Observe the sentences, — 

(1) The sun shines. (3) The sun is a planet. 

(2) Horses help man. (4) The flowers are beautiful. 

67. We shall find many verbs like shines in (1) that 
are complete in themselves ; and many other verbs, like 
help in (2), is in (3), and are in (4), which require the 
addition of other words to complete them. Verbs are, 
therefore, complete or incomplete. Again we may see that 
some incomplete verbs like help in (2) are completed by 
objects. Other verbs, like those in (3) and (4), require 
attributes to complete them. 



20 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

IMPOETANT DEFINITIONS. 

68. (1) A verb that represents the action of an agent as 
affecting an object is transitive. 

69. (2) A verb that does not represent the action of an 
agent as affecting an object is intransitive. 

70. (3) A verb that requires an attribute to complete it is 
copulative. 

71. (4) A verb that does not require an attribute to com- 
plete it is attributive. 

72. (5) Any expression that completes an incomplete 
verb is a complement. 

73. (6) The attribute that completes a copulative verb is 
an attributive complement. 

74. (7) The object that completes a transitive verb is an 
objective complement. 

75. In the following sentences tell whether each verb is 
complete or incomplete, copulative or attributive, transitive or 
intransitive ; designate each complement and tell whether it 
is objective or attributive. 

(1) The kittens play. 

(2) Mr. Dickey preaches. 

(3) He builds houses. 

(4) His brother is a builder of railroads. 

(5) He believes you are. 

(6) Weakly children seldom become strong men. 

(7) He was elected mayor. 

(8) He becomes his position. 

KINDS OP SENTENCES. 

76. Observing the attitude of our thoughts toward the 
realities they represent, we see that some of them are 
merely intellectual declarations, some are emotional connec- 
tions, some are questions, and others represent real relations 
as not yet established, but to be requested or demanded of 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 21 

some agent. We have, therefore, four kinds of sentences as 
to use. 

77. A Declarative Sentence is one that merely affirms a 

relation ; as, — 

John has a bird in his pocket. 

78. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses the feel- 
ing aroused by apprehending a relation ; as, — 

John has a bird in his pocket ! 

79. An Interrogative Sentence is one that inquires as to 
the existence of a relation ; as, — 

Has John a bird in his pocket ? 

80. An Imperative Sentence is one that requests or de- 
mands the establishment of a relation ; as, — 

John, have a bird in your pocket. 

81. Observing also the form of our thoughts, some are 
isolated or single, others are closely connected but coordi- 
nate, and others are dependent one upon another. Their 
expression gives us three kinds of sentences as to form. 

82. A Simple Sentence is the expression of a single thought; 

as, — 

The flowers are fragrant. 

83. A Compound Sentence is one that expresses two or more 
connected but coordinate thoughts ; as, — 

The flowers are fragrant and the rain has nourished them. 

84. A Complex Sentence is one that expresses a principal 
thought together with one or more subordinate thoughts de- 
pending upon it ; as, — 

The flowers are fragrant because the rain has nourished them. 

(a) In the last example, "The flowers are fragrant" 
expresses the principal thought, and " the rain has nour- 
ished them," the subordinate thought. 

(5) In a complex sentence, the sentence expressing the 



22 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

principal thought is called the principal sentence, and any- 
one expressing a subordinate thought is a subordinate sen- 
tence or clause. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

85. (1) As to Form: — 

(a) Simple. — Paul walks. 

(b) Compound. — Paul walks and Peter rides. 

(c) Complex. — Paul walks because Peter rides. 

86. (2) As to Use: — 

(d) Declarative. — The boys are honest. 

(e) Interrogative. — Are the boys honest ? 
(/) Exclamatory. — The boys are honest ! 
(g) Imperative. — Boys, be honest. 

87. Classify each of the following sentences according to 

use: — 

(1) The last of all the bards was he. 

(2) Slavery they can have anywhere. 

(3) When should education be commenced ? 

(4) Stand by your convictions. 

(5) What a contrast these boys present ! 

88. Classify each of the following sentences according to 
form : — 

(1) In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is valuable. 

(2) The gain is doubtful but the danger is certain. 

(3) Let us live while we live. 

(4) The harvest is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 

(5) Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

89. Classify each of the following sentences according to 
both form and use : — 

(1) The decision of the judge increased the irritation of the people. 

(2) A truly great man borrows no luster from splendid ancestry. 

(3) Study to acquire a habit of accurate expression. 

(4) He that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 

(5) Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 

(6) Now stir the fire and close the shutters fast. 

(7) It is one thing to be well informed ; it is another to be wise. 



PHRASES. 23 

(8) What thrilling experience this old oak might utter if it could 

speak ! 

(9) The song that moves a nation's heart is in itself a deed. 
(10) It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth. 

90. Write : — 

(1) three simple sentences. 

(2) three compound sentences. 

(3) three complex sentences. 

(4) three declarative sentences. 

(5) three interrogative sentences. 

(6) three exclamatory sentences. 

(7) three imperative sentences. 

PHEASES. 

91. A Phrase is any group of words forming a modifier 
that is not a sentence ; as, — 

"The history of our country is full of thrilling events." 
14 The men came ivith great clamor to drive the wolves away from the 
flock." 

(a) Any part of speech together with its modifiers may properly be 
called a phrase, which is named from its chief word or basis. Thus accord- 
ing to basis we may have 

a noun phrase, as, " The little boy cried"; 

a verb phrase, as, " George stood by the old elm" ; 

an adjective phrase, as, " Grammar is very interesting "; 

an adverbial phrase, as, "We advance very rapidly" ; 

an infinitive phrase, as "He likes to walk rapidly" ; 

a participial phrase, as, "The dog coming toward us is Major" ; 

a prepositional phrase, as "The captain stands by his men." 

We may even speak of 

an interjection phrase, as, " Alas for maiden" ; 

or a conjunction phrase, as, "John as well as Susan was mistaken." 
(6) In the following classification only two kinds of phrases as to basis 
are considered, prepositional and infinitive. 

(c) The word modifier is used in a very broad sense. Ordinarily we 
speak only of adjective, adverbial, and objective modifiers. In "Those 
bad boys tease us constantly," bad is an adjective modifier of boys ; us 
and constantly are modifiers of tease. Us is objective, and constantly, 
adverbial. But we may as correctly say that a verb modifies its object 



24 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

as that the object modifies its verb. When we say an object modifies its 
verb, we mean the object expresses the recipient of the verb's action ; and 
to say a verb modifies its object means that it determines the case relation 
and often the form of its object. With equal correctness we may say a 
subject modifies its verb, and a verb modifies both its subject and its 
attributive complement. In " You are he," you determines the form of 
are, and are in turn determines the form of both you and he. 

CLASSES OF PHKASES. 

92. (1) As to Form : — 

(a) Simple. — We left in the evening. 

(b) Compound. — To direct well and to do ivell are differ- 

ent things. He came in the morning, at noon, and 
at night. 

(c) Complex. — The kite flew over the tops of the trees. 

93. (2) As to Basis : — 

(d) Prepositional. — The city of Brooklyn is in the state of 

New York. 

(e) Infinitive. — He came to learn. He asks permission to 

remain. 

94. (3) As to Use: — 

(/) Adjective. — The road through the valley is rough. All 

have the right to vote, 
(g) Adverbial. — He does his work with care. 
(Ji) Substantive. — To forgive is divine. He likes to be 

let alone. 

95. A Simple Phrase is a single phrase. 

96. A Compound Phrase is one consisting of two or more 
coordinate phrases. 

97. A Complex Phrase is one some modifier in which is a 
prepositional or infinitive phrase. 

98. A Prepositional Phrase is one whose basis is a preposi- 
tion and its object. 

99. An Infinitive Phrase is one whose basis is an infinitive. 

100. An Adjective Phrase is one used as an adjective. 

101. An Adverbial Phrase is one used as an adverb. 



CLASSES OF CLAUSES. 25 

102. A Substantive Phrase is one used as a noun. 
(a) A prepositional phrase is not often used substantively. 

103. In the following sentences, classify each phrase, 
(1) as to form, (2) as to basis, and (3) as to use. 

(1) To see is to believe. 

(2) He came to learn and to improve his health. 

(3) We do not wish to detract from your reputation. 

(4) They have been invited to unite with our class. 

(5) I got the information in the letter from your father. 

(6) To succeed in covering up a fault is harder than to keep from 
committing it. 

104. Write sentences containing : — 

(1) three simple phrases, (5) three infinitive phrases, 

(2) three compound phrases, (6) three adjective phrases, 

(3) three complex phrases, (7) three adverbial phrases, 

(4) three prepositional phrases, (8) three substantive phrases. 

CLAUSES. 

105. A clause is any group of words forming a sentence 

that is used as a modifier ; as, — 

He came when he was wanted. 
She said that she was hungry. 
The horse that died yesterday was worth five thousand dollars. 

(a) The word clause is often used as a synonym for sentence, but 
throughout this book it will be used in accordance with the definition 
given above, to signify a subordinate sentence. 

(b) Be careful to distinguish a phrase from a clause. Both are modi- 
fiers. They are unlike in that a clause always contains a subject and 
predicate, while a phrase does not. 

(c) A clause may contain a phrase, as in, u A house that is set on a hill 
cannot be hid" ; or a phrase may contain a clause, as in, " We were 
talking about how it happened." 

CLASSES OF CLAUSES. 

106. (1) As to Form : — 

(a) Simple. — That he was wrong is evident. 

(&) Compound. — That he was wrong and that he knew it is 

evident, 
(c) Complex. — That he was wrong when he said it is evident. 



26 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

107. As to Use : — 

(d) Adjective. — Here is a boy that is sick. 

(e) Adverbial. — He lies where he fell. 

(/) Substantive. — He thinks that I am not honest. 
How he did it is a mystery. 
His motto is, All men should work. 
His motto, Most men may be trusted, is a 
safe one. 

108. A Simple Clause is a single clause. 

109. A Compound Clause is one consisting of two or more 
coordinate clauses. 

110. A Complex Clause is one some modifier in which is a 
clause. 

111. An Adjective Clause is one used as an adjective. 

112. An Adverbial Clause is one used as an adverb. 

113. A Substantive Clause is one used as a noun. 

114. In the following sentences classify each clause, 
(1) as to form, and (2) as to use. 

(1) We must seek shelter, for the storm is near. 

(2) They that are whole need not a physician. 

(3) When I was a child I spoke as children speak. 

(4) He is the gentleman that I met in Washington when I went to 
see you. 

(5) That he should have failed when all the conditions were so 
favorable, is hard to understand. 

(6) Who does not believe that he will do what he promises ? 

115. Write sentences containing : — 

(1) three simple clauses, (4) three adjective clauses, 

(2) three compound clauses, (5) three adverbial clauses, 

(3) three complex clauses, (6) three substantive clauses. 

WEITTEN EEVIEW. 

116. The pupil need not write the questions. Give 
each answer the same number that its question has. 

117. In the use of this or any other book, the best 
results will be attained if the teacher uses his own judg- 



WRITTEN REVIEW. 27 

ment as to what exercise shall be taken in whole, what 
in part, what supplemented by outside work, and what 
omitted altogether. Only this one suggestion is insisted 
upon : Let every member of the class hand in a written 
answer to every question in every Review. In no other 
way can the pupil master so much of grammar. Let 
every illustration be a sentence. 

118. All illustrations must be in original sentences. 

(1) Name four objects to be attained in the study of Grammar. 

(2) Name two errors that are possible in one's attitude toward 
Grammar. 

(3) What part of Grammar is technical ? 

(4) What can you say of the relation of Grammar to Literature ? 
Should the two be taught together ? Why ? 

(5) What is the field of Grammar ? With what other fields is it 
closely connected ? Show the connection by means of a specific example. 

(6) Name 5 of the most important uses of Capitals. Illustrate each. 

(7) State and illustrate 6 important rules of Punctuation. 

(8) Define Impression and Expression. State their proper relation 
to each other. 

(9) Define a sentence, and tell how it is the unit of language. 

(10) Write what you think would be necessary to make the definition 
of a sentence clear to one who does not already understand it. t 

(11) Name and define the essential parts of a sentence. Illustrate. 

(12) What are the two functions of every predicate f How may they 
be expressed ? 

(13) What is meant by a part of speech ? 

(14) Define each of the parts of speech. Illustrate. 

(15) How are nouns like pronouns ? How unlike ? 

(16) How are nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alike ? 

(17) How are adjectives and adverbs alike ? How unlike ? 

(18) How are verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns alike? 
How do verbs differ from all the others ? 

(19) How are verbs and prepositions alike ? How unlike ? 

(20) How are verbs and conjunctions alike f How unlike ? 

(21) How axe prepositions and conjunctions alike f How unlike ? 

(22) How are verbs like both prepositions and conjunctions f How 
are verbs unlike both ? 

(23) Define Inflection. For what is each part of speech inflected ? 

(24) What is Parsing f Its uses f Its abuses f 



28 GKAMMAK ESSENTIALS. 

(25) What is meant by construction ? Illustrate. 

(26) Distinguish : subject of an act, subject of a thought, subject of a 
verb ; object of an act, object of a thought, object of a verb. Give clear 
illustrations. 

(27) Distinguish : a real relation, a thought relation, and a verbal 
relation. Give clear illustrations. 

(28) State the relation between : (a) the object of a verb and the 
object of an action; (6) the subject of a verb and the subject {agent) of 
an action. Illustrate. 

(29) What is meant by attribute (or predicate-attribute) and object 
as grammatical terms ? Illustrate. 

(30) Define complement. Define and illustrate two kinds of comple- 
ments. 

(31) Define and illustrate: transitive verb, intransitive verb ; copula- 
tive verb, attributive verb ; complete verb, incomplete verb. 

(32) Criticize: (a) a transitive verb is one that governs an object; 
(b) an intransitive verb is one that does not govern an object. Write a 
sentence containing a transitive verb that does not govern an object. 

(33) Define and illustrate : declarative sentence, exclamatory sentence, 
interrogative sentence, imperative sentence. What is the basis of this 
classification ? 

(34) Define and illustrate : simple sentence, compound sentence, com- 
plex sentence. What is the basis of this classification ? 

(35) Write: (a) a simple declarative sentence; (b) a compound in- 
terrogative sentence; (c) a complex imperative sentence; (d) a com- 
plex exclamatory sentence ; (e) a complex declarative sentence; (/) a 
complex interrogative sentence, — each about snakes. 

(36) Define a phrase. Illustrate. 

(37) Write a sentence containing : — 

(a) A simple, prepositional, adjective phrase. 

(b) A simple, prepositional, adverbial phrase. 

(c) A simple, infinitive, adjective phrase. 

(d) A simple, infinitive, adverbial phrase. 

(e) A simple, infinitive, substantive phrase. 

(/) A compound, prepositional, adverbial phrase. 

(g) A compound, infinitive, substantive phrase. 

(h) A complex, prepositional, adjective phrase, 

(i) A complex, prepositional, adverbial phrase. 

(j) A complex, infinitive, adjective phrase. 

(k) A complex, infinitive, substantive phrase. 

(I) A complex, infinitive, adverbial phrase. 

(38) Define a clause. Illustrate. 



WRITTEN REVIEW. 29 

(39) Write a sentence containing : — 

(a) A simple adjective clause. 

(b) A simple adverbial clause. 

(c) A simple substantive clause. 

(d) A compound adjective clause. 

(e) A compound adverbial clause. 
(/) A compound substantive clause. 
(g) A complex adjective clause. 

(h) A complex adverbial clause, 
(i) A complex substantive clause. 

(40) Write a sentence in which there is a simple adverbial clause con- 
taining a complex adjective phrase. 

(41) Write a sentence in which there is a simple adverbial phrase con- 
taining a complex adjective clause. 

(42) Name the divisions of Grammar, Define each. 



PAETS OF SPEECH. 

119. We have made a general examination of the sen- 
tence as a whole, its two essential parts, its kinds or 
classes, and have learned to distinguish the different parts 
of speech that form it. We are now ready to make a closer 
study of each of these eight parts of speech, and we shall 
begin with the noun. 

THE NOUN. 

120. A Noun is the name of an object; as, Helen, Robert, 
Tolstoy, Detroit, salt, carpenter, ghost, drove, mind, feeling, 
William Jennings Bryan. 

(a) Any word, sign, phrase, or clause may be used substantively ; as, 
4- , — , x , and h- are mathematical signs. But since they do not name 
objects, they are not nouns. They are rather objects or things than names. 
They are properly called substantives. 

(6) A substantive is any expression or thing that may stand in a sen- 
tence as the subject of a verb or in any other relation that a noun may 
have. 

(c) It will be seen that substantives include all nouns, pronouns, 
phrases, clauses, signs, and things that may occupy a noun relation. In 
the following sentences, all the italicized parts are substantives : — 

(1) John likes the man that came with us. 

(2) Whom do you wish to spell and? 

(3) To study is to learn. 

(4) We believe he is industrious. 

(5) * is a reference mark. 

(6) Two is not the same as to. 

CLASSES OP NOUNS. 

121. There are two ways of naming an object : (1) we 
may merely denote the class to which it belongs, or (2) we 
may distinguish it from others of its class. 

30 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 31 

122. Now, since there are two ways of naming an ob- 
ject, there are two corresponding classes of nouns, common 
and proper. 

123. A Common Noun is a name given to an object merely 
to denote the class to which it belongs; as, man, child, lawyer, 
river, tree. 

124. A Proper Noun is a name given to an object to distin- 
guish it from others of its class ; as, Martin Luther, Ethel, 
Judge Royse, the Nile, the Charter Oak. 

(a) A noun usually proper may become common when it ceases 
to refer to a particular object and becomes the name of a class ; as, " Who 
are the Henry Clays of to-day? " 

(6) A noun usually common may become proper when it is used 
to distinguish any particular object from others of its class ; as, " Barber, 
please do not talk so much.' 1 

125. The proper noun has no subclasses. 

126. The common noun may, for convenience, be divided 
into three subclasses, Collective, Abstract, and Class. 

127. A Collective Noun is one whose singular form may 
represent a group of objects ; as, flock, herd, swarm. 

(a) A collective noun always represents a group of animate objects. 
(6) A collective noun may refer to its objects in either of two 
ways : — 

(1) Singly, separately, individually ; as, " Your party have carnations 
on their coats." 

(2) Collectively, as one unit in which the individuals are lost sight of ; 
as, " Your party has a place if it can find it." 

128. An Abstract Noun is the name of an object thought of 
as a quality of some other object; as, "The life of a thing 
determines its value." 

(a) In this respect also a noun may be used in either of two 
ways : — 

(1) It may name an object as being a quality of some other object, 
as illustrated above. 

(2) It may name an object as having qualities ; as, "Life is more than 
raiment." 



32 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

129. The first use gives abstract nouns ; the second, 
class nouns. 

(a) All verbal nouns are abstract. 

130. A Class Noun is any common noun that is neither 
collective nor abstract; as, boy, woman, barn, fork. The 
large majority of common nouns are class nouns. 

PKOPEKTIES OP NOUNS. 

131. Nouns have four properties, person, number, gender, 
and case. We may discuss them in this order. 

PERSON. 

132. A noun may be used in the sentence so as to name : 
the speaker, as, " I, Robert Brown, shall master this 
grammar"; the object spoken to, as, "Robert Brown, 
you have a good opinion of yourself"; the object spoken 
of, as, "We all like Robert Brown." This property is 
Person. In these illustrative sentences the noun, Robert 
Brown, is, respectively, of the first, second, and third person. 

133. Person is the property of a noun that indicates 
whether it names the speaker, the object spoken to, or the 
object spoken of. 

(a) English nouns are not inflected for person. Person is shown by 
the noun's position in the sentence. 

(b) Most nouns are of the third person. 

(c) All predicate nouns are of the third person. 

(d) The first and second persons belong only to names of persons, 
or of other objects personified. 

(e) A noun of the first person is found in only two constructions : 
(1) In apposition with a pronoun of the first person, and (2) in the 
nominative absolute case by subscription. 

(f) A noun of the second person has but two constructions : 
(1) In apposition with a pronoun of the second person, and (2) in 
the nominative absolute case by direct address. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 33 

NUMBER. 

134. A noun may show that it designates one object or 
more than one ; as, stove, stoves ; watch, watches ; man, men. 
This property is Number. 

135. Number is the property by which a noun shows whether 
it stands for one object or for more than one. 

136. Nouns have two numbers : the singular, denoting 
one ; as, log, pig, sun ; and the plural, denoting more than 
one ; as, logs, pigs, suns. 

THE FORMATION OF PLURALS. 

137. A very important and very practical question is 
how to write the plurals of sirigular nouns. To avoid em- 
barrassing, and it may be costly, mistakes, the few simple 
rules must be thoroughly mastered. 

138. There are two general ways of forming the plurals 
of nouns : — 

(1) By Terminal Inflection, that is, by a change in the 
ending : Most nouns form their plurals by adding s or es to 
the singular forms ; as, cap, caps; bonnet, bonnets; sin, sins; 
blade, blades; trench, trenches; bliss, blisses; leech, leeches. 

Euphony, the blending of the sounds, determines whether 
s or es is to be added. 

(a) Nouns ending in ch (soft), s, sh, x, or z, and some nouns in o pre- 
ceded by a consonant, add es to the singular ; as, bench, benches ; kiss, 
kisses; brush, brushes; tax, taxes; topaz, topazes; motto, mottoes. 

(b) Singular nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y to i 
and then add es ; as, baby, babies ; history, histories ; comedy, comedies. 

(c) A few singular nouns ending in/or/e, change the ending to v and 
then add es ; as, thief, thieves; wife, wives; life, lives; wolf, wolves. 

(2) By Radical Change, that is, by a change in the root 
vowel of the singular ; as, man, men; woman, women; goose, 
geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice. 

(a) Comparatively few nouns form their plurals in this manner. 



34 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. 

139. (1) A few nouns have the same form for the singular 
and the plural. Their number must be determined from 
some other part of the sentence ; as, " The sheep is valu- 
able," "The sheep are valuable." 

(a) Other nouns of this class are deer, grouse, series, salmon, heathen. 

140. (2) Some nouns have double plurals, one English 
and one foreign, or two English plurals with different sig- 
nifications ; as : — 

Brother, Brothers (by birth), Brethren (of same society). 

Staff, Staffs (military), Staves (sticks). 

Medium, Mediums (persons), Media (things). 

Index, Indexes (of books), Indices (in algebra). 

141. (3) Some nouns from foreign languages have double 
plurals, one foreign and one English, with the same signifi- 
cation: 



' 


English. 


Foreign. 


Formula (Latin), 


Formulas, 


Formulae. 


Dogma (Greek), 


Dogmas, 


Dogmata. 


Cherub (Hebrew), 


Cherubs, 


Cherubim. 


Bandit (Italian), 


Bandits, 


Banditti. 



(a) The English plurals are preferable except in technical language. 

142. (4) Some plural nouns have no corresponding singu- 
lar forms ; as, scales (for weighing), pantaloons, annals, 
drawers (clothing), shears, victuals. 

143. (5) Some nouns have the plural form but singular 
meaning ; as, news, means, molasses, riches, pains, odds, 
thanks, gallows, amends, tidings, etc. 

(a) Also, politics, ethics, optics, mathematics, physics, and a few others 
represent Greek plurals, but are singular. It is better to say, " Ethics is," 
44 Mathematics is," "Politics is," etc., than to use plural verbs. 

144. (6) Abstract nouns have no plurals ; as, sagacity, 
prudence, meekness, harshness, etc. 

145. (7) The plurals of letters, marks, figures, and signs 
are formed by adding the apostrophe and s ; as, " cross 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 35 

your t's and dot your i's." "The + 's and — 's are not 
very important." 

146. (8) The plural of compound words is commonly 
formed by pluralizing the part of the word that is de- 
scribed by the rest; as, ox-carts, mouse-traps, sisters-in-law, 
commanders-in-chief, etc. 

(a) A few compound words pluralize both parts ; as, men-servants, 
women-servants, knights-templars (or sometimes knights-templar). 

147. (9) The plural of proper nouns is commonly formed 
by adding sores; as, the Bowsers, the Darsts, the Dickeys, 
the Joneses. 

(a) When a proper noun ends in y, some writers change the y to i, 
before adding the plural ending, and others do not ; as, Mary, Marys, or 
Maries ; Fully, Fullys, or Fullies. 

148. (10) The plural of proper nouns preceded by titles is 
formed by pluralizing either the name or the title, but 
not both. 

(a) First Rule : If the title is Mrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the 
name is always pluralized; as, " The Mrs. Browns,'''' "The two Mrs. 
Barlows," " The two Miss Hat fields." 

(b) Second Rule : The title should always be pluralized when it is 
Mister, Miss, Doctor, Professor, etc. , not preceded by a numeral ; as, 
u The Messrs. Frazier," " The Misses Steele" "The Drs. Johnson" 

GENDER. 

149. A noun may denote an object of the male sex, an 
object of the female sex, an object with sex not definitely speci- 
fied, or an object without sex. This property is Gender. 

150. Gender is the property of a noun or pronoun (a sub- 
stantive) that expresses the relation of its object to sex. 

151. A Substantive of the Masculine Gender represents a 
male object ; as, Joseph, bachelor, uncle, boy, he, him. 

152. A Substantive of the Feminine Gender represents a 
female object ; as, Josephine, maid, aunt, girl, she, her. 



36 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(a) In cases of personification — thinking of lower animals or inanimate 
objects as persons — masculine and feminine nouns are used, — " The sun 
in his glory," " The moon in her splendor." This is true only in the higher 
degrees of personification ; in the lowest, neuter nouns and pronouns are 
always used ; as, u The gentle brooklet hastens to its home in the sea." 

153. A Substantive of the Common Gender represents an 

object with sex not definitely specified; as, parent, child, 

persons, relatives, we, us, they, them. 

(a) A noun or pronoun is of the common gender when it represents 
either a single object whose sex is not specified or a number of objects 
not all of the same sex ; as, person, relatives. 

154. A Substantive of the Neuter Gender represents an 
object without sex; as, ice, box, tree, rain. 

(a) Neuter nouns and pronouns are often used to represent children 
and small animals; as, " The child in its cradle." " The bird in its 
nest." 

(5) In the disposition of a sentence, sometimes the noun that is used 
will enable us to know the gender of the pronoun; as, " The boys lost 
their hats ; ana in other sentences, the pronoun that is used tells us the 
gender of its corresponding noun ; as, " The ship has lost her way." 

(c) It is important to remember the distinction between gender and 
sex. Sex belongs to objects, gender to nouns and pronouns. It would 
be as improper to speak of a man of the masculine gender, as of a noun 
of the male sex. There are only two sexes ; but, since substantives can 
tell four different things about sex, there are four genders. 

(d) The gender of a collective noun may be masculine, feminine, com- 
mon, or neuter. 

155. It has already been pointed out that a collective 
noun may refer to its objects in either of two ways: — 

(1) Collectively, as one unit ; as, " The mob in its fury 
burned the town." " Congress voted the appropriation 
before it adjourned." In this use the collective noun is 
always of the neuter gender. 

(2) Singly, separately, individually. In this use, the 
gender of the noun depends upon the sex of the objects. 
If a group of male objects are referred to individually by 
a collective noun, its gender is masculine ; if a group of 



PROPERTIES OP NOUNS. 



37 



female objects are referred to individually by a collective 
noun, its gender is feminine ; if a group of objects not of 
the same sex be referred to individually by a collective 
noun, its gender is common. The following sentences 
illustrate in order, masculine, feminine, and common, the 
gender of a collective noun referring to its objects indi- 
vidually : — 

Our baseball team wear blue caps on their heads. 

The sewing circle have thimbles on their fingers. 

The congregation remain till their contributions are collected. 

But in the following sentence the collective noun refers 
to its objects as one unit and is therefore in the neuter 
gender: "The congregation is larger than it was a year 
ago." 

156. Nouns may distinguish the sex of their objects 
in three ways, or have three kinds of Inflection : — 



(1) BY DIFFERENT WORDS. 

Mas. Fern. Mas. 

Boy, Girl. Lad, 

Brother, Sister. Man, 

Drake, Duck. Son, 

Father, Mother. Uncle, 



Fern. 



Woman. 

Daughter. 

Aunt. 



(2) BY DIFFERENT TERMINATIONS. 

Mas. Fern. Mas. Fern. 

Abbot, Abbess. Enchanter, Enchantress. 

Actor, Actress. Lion, Lioness. 

Baron, Baroness. Prince, Princess. 

(a) Most words of this class are appellations of office, occupation, or 
rank, and the feminine generally ends in ess or trix. 

(b) There are not now so many feminines in ess as there were in 
earlier stages of our language. At present the best usage regards such 
terms as doctor, author, writer, engraver, as applicable both to men and 
to women. 

(3) BY PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

He-bear, She-bear. 

Man-servant, Maid-servant. 

' Miss Jones. 



Mr. Jones, 



Mrs. Jones. 



38 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



CASE. 



(1) The orator convinced the jury. 

(2) The boy's hand reached the hat. 

157. A noun may stand in any one of several different 
relations to the part of the sentence that governs it. It may 
stand as the subject of a finite verb, like orator and hand. 
This is known as a Nominative Relation. It may be the 
object of a verb, like jury and hat. This is an Objective 
Relation. Also, it may limit another noun so as to denote 
possession, like boy's. This is a Possessive Relation. 

158. This property, the relation of a noun to the part of 
the sentence that governs it, is case. 

(a) Originally in our language case meant form. In some languages 
it means form now. English nouns, however, have lost all their case in- 
flection except for the possessive. For this reason, it seems preferable to 
identify case and governing relation. Yet, since we still have in the 
possessive the one vestige of case as form, and since our pronouns are 
inflected for case, any student who prefers to distinguish case and relation 
will not be without good reason on his side. 

(6) What is the way out ? It is almost meaningless so far as nouns 
are concerned to regard case as form. On the other hand, when we parse 
George, in the sentence, " George came," as (1) in the nominative case, 
and (2) as the subject of came, we admit that the case is not quite identi- 
cal with the relation. This, then, is probably the safest position : As our 
language now is, each case is the group of relations that originally re- 
quired nouns of the same form. Then in parsing a noun, to name the 
group of relations including it is to give its case, and to state the specific 
relation this noun bears to the part of the sentence that governs it is to 
give its construction. Thus, in the sentence, " We are students,'" stu- 
dents is (1) in the nominative case, (2) the complement of the copulative 
verb are. 

159. A noun may stand in any one of many different 
relations. These may be grouped into three general 
classes, each group of relations being regarded as a case. 
This gives us three cases which are called Nominative, Pos- 
sessive, and Objective. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 39 

160. Case is the sum of all the relations a substantive may 
bear to the governing part of a sentence. Any particular 
case, as nominative, possessive, objective, is the corresponding 
group of relations. The construction of a particular substan- 
tive is the specific relation it bears in its sentence. 

161. The Nominative Case is the group of all the nominative 
relations. 

162. This case has two divisions, — the Nominative Case 
(dependent), and the Nominative Case (absolute). 

163. The Dependent Nominative Constructions are : — 

(1) Subject of a finite verb ; as : — 

Bronson sold the book. 
Henry is our doctor. 
Thou art the man. 
They believe us. 
Who says it ? 
He who runs may read. 

(2) Complement of a copulative verb whose subject is 
nominative ; as, — 

Mary is a studious girl. 

We are learners. 

You are not I. 

They were we. 

We were they. 

We were thought to be they. 

They were thought to be we. 

Who are you ? 

We know who you are. 

I am not the man that he thinks I am. 

(3) In apposition with a nominative substantive ; as: — 

Your friend, James, wishes to see you. 
She is his sister, Martha. 
We, your brothers, request it. 
Your cousin, 7, shall wait for you. 
(a) A substantive in apposition is in the same case as the sub- 
stantive it explains. 



40 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(6) A substantive in almost any construction may have another in 
apposition with it. 

(c) Neither an interrogative nor a relative (conjunctive) pronoun is 
ever in apposition. 

(d) A substantive is in apposition when, "without a connecting 
element, it modifies another in the same case and of the same signification. 

(e) Observe that the appositive term is the one that explains the other. 
(/) Apposition applies to all cases. 

(g) Be careful to distinguish a substantive in apposition ; as, " Brown, 
the doctor, came," from one used as the complement of a copulative verb ; 
as, "Brown is a doctor." 

164. Note the presence of a connecting element when 
a noun is used as the complement of a copulative verb, 
and the absence of a connective element when it is in 
apposition. 

165. Finite and Infinite Verbs. — Examine the following 
sentences : — 

(1) I am. (2) Thou art. (3) He is. (4) They are. 

The first three show us that the verb changes its form 
as we change the person of its subject. Comparing (3) 
and (4) we note that the verb changes its form also for 
the number of its subject. In the following sentences : — 

(1) You wish me to be well, 

(2) I wish you to be well, 

(3) She wishes him to be well, 

(4) We wish them to be well, 

we note that the italicized verbs do not change their form 
for the person or number of their subjects. The same is 
true of other verb forms, such as being and having been. 

166. A Finite Verb is one whose form may be modified by 
the person or number of its subject. 

167. An Infinite Verb is one whose form is not modified by 
the person or number of its subject. 

168. All verbs are finite verbs except Infinitives and 
Participles. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 41 

169. Copulative Verbs are those that join attributive ex- 
pressions to their subjects; as: am, is, are, be, was, were, 
been. These attributive expressions may be either ad- 
jectives or nouns. If nouns, they are called predicate 
nouns. 

170. A Predicate Noun is one used as the complement of a 
copulative verb. With one exception, a substantive com- 
pleting a copulative verb is in the same case as its subject ; 
as, We thought John was & farmer. This construction 
belongs to pronouns as well as nouns ; as, We thought 
she was he. It must be seen also that it applies to the 
objective case as well as to the nominative ; as, We 
thought her to be him. 

171. The Exception. — A substantive is in the nominative 
case when it is the complement of a copulative participle 
whose subject is possessive ; as, Your being he should make 
no difference. 

172. A substantive is in apposition when, without a con- 
necting element, it modifies another in the same case and 
of the same signification. 

(a) The appositive term is the one that explains the other. 
(6) Apposition applies to all cases. 

(c) Be careful to distinguish a substantive in apposition, as, " Brown, 
the blacksmith, came," from one used as the complement of a copulative 
verb, as, " Brown is a blacksmith." 

(d) An appositive is in the same case as the substantive it modifies, 
and it means the same. A substantive used as the complement of a cop- 
ulative verb is in the same case as its subject and means the same. So 
far they resemble. This is their difference : A predicate noun has, and 
an appositive has not, a connecting element to join it to the substantive 
it explains. 

173. The Independent or Absolute Nominative Constructions 
are, — 

(1) By direct address : — 

George, we agree with you. 



42 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(2) By exclamation : — 

The men of Mars ! 

(3) By pleonasm : — 

Snakes of Iceland, there are none. 

(4) By inscription : — 

Thorndike's Psychology. 

(5) Subject of an independent participle : — 

Bob having said it, we believed it. 

(6) Complement of an independent copulative parti- 
ciple : — 

Susan being the cook, we had a good dinner. 

(7) In apposition : — 

Bryan, the orator, having come, we remained. 

(a) A substantive in any of these constructions is in the nominative 
absolute case. 

(b) A substantive in any one of the first six constructions may have 
another in apposition with it. The class will give illustrations. 

(c) Pleonasm is the independent use of a substantive before a sentence 
that makes a statement or asks a question about the object the substantive 
designates ; as, — 

The soldiers, they are noble men. 
The soldiers, how many are here ? 

(d) Inscription is merely the writing of isolated names out of any 
grammatical dependence. It includes superscriptions, subscriptions, and 
inscriptions on coins, signs, monuments, and books. 

174. The Possessive Case is the group of possessive rela- 
tions or constructions. 

175. The Possessive Constructions are : — 

(1) Limiting a noun of different signification ; as, — 
Grace's cloak, Bobert's book, PauVs slate, Newton's theory. 

(2) Limiting a noun of same signification = apposition ; as, 
Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth's reign. 

(3) Subject of a participle having a dependent substantive use ; 

as, 
Susan's whispering disturbed Henry. 
Her speaking good German secured the position. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 43 

176. The Possessive is the only case for which English 
nouns are inflected. 

177. Singular nouns and plurals not ending in 5 form their 
possessive by annexing 's to the nominative form ; as, — 

The boy's ball ; the men's objections. 

178. Plural nouns ending in 5 form their possessive by- 
annexing only the apostrophe ; as, — 

Nations' constitutions, girls' interests, crickets' songs, 
(a) When we use a pair or series of nouns denoting common pos- 
session, the possessive sign is annexed only to the last ; as, — 

Scott and Denny's Rhetoric, Kingery and Myer's store. 
(6) "When we use a pair or series of nouns denoting separate pos- 
session, the sign is annexed to each, and the name limited by the last 
possessive is understood after each of the others ; as, — 

Hill's and Smith's Rhetoric = Hill's Rhetoric and Smith's Rhetoric. 

(c) In compound terms the possessive sign is annexed to the last 
part ; as, — 

The court-martial' s decisions. The courts-martial's decisions. 

(d) When a noun in the possessive case is limited by a noun 
in apposition with it, by a descriptive phrase, or by a pronominal 
adjective, the possessive sign is annexed to the term immediately pre- 
ceding the noun limited ; as, — 

The emperor Napoleon's grave. The secretary of the Navy's report. 
What I do is no one else's concern. 

When the possessive idea is expressed by a proper noun explained 
by a common noun in apposition with it and when the name of the thing 
possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be annexed to either the 
common or the proper noun, but not to both ; as, — 
He stopped at Smith the printer's, or He stopped at Smith's the printer. 

(e) The subject of a participle having a dependent substantive use 
is in the possessive case and must be written in the possessive form. 
Otherwise the meaning is changed. 

11 The man's being truthful was not questioned," and " No one opposes 
the woman's running for office," do not mean the same as "The man 
being truthful was not questioned," and "No one opposes the woman 
running for office." 

179. The Objective Case is the group of all the objective 
relations or constructions. 



44 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

180. The Objective Constructions are : — 

(1) Object of a transitive verb ; as, — 
The horse injured the floor. He injured us. 

(2) Object of a preposition; as, — 
She came for the men. She came for us. 

(3) Subject of an infinitive; as, — 

He wishes George to be happy. He wishes us to be happy. 

(4) Complement of a copulative infinitive having its 

subject in the objective case ; as, — 
He thought me to be George. He thought George to be me. 

(5) In apposition ; as, — 

We saw Taft, the President. 

We saw Taft, him for whom you voted. 

(a) A noun iD any of the first four constructions may be modified by 
an appositive. The class will give written illustrations. 

(b) Apposition applies to all cases. The class will write illustra- 
tions. 

181. The direct object is the object of an active transitive 

verb; as, — 

Men build houses. 
She hurt us. 

182. A substantive cannot be the object of an intransitive 
verb. As illustrated above, an intransitive infinitive when 
copulative may be followed by an objective complement ; 

as, 

We thought Jane to be Martha. 
We thought him to be her. 

But such as the italicized words are objective attributive 
complements, not direct objects. 

(a) A cognate objective or accusative is a direct object similar in 
signification to the verb ; as, — 

He dreamed a frightful dream. 
She lived a noble life. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 45 

(b) The object of a preposition is in the objective case ; as, — 

It is for me. It is for Sam and me. 

She sat by me. She sat by Bobert and me. 

He came with her. He came with Mary and her. 
A nominative form of a pronoun in place of any of the italicized words 
would be an unjustifiable error. 

(c) The Indirect Object. — A transitive verb is sometimes followed 
by two objectives differing in signification, — a direct object, denoting that 
which the verb's action directly affects, and an indirect object, denoting 
a different thing that is also affected, but indirectly, by the same action ; 
as > — She made the girl a dress. 

George gave me a book. 
Lend us your sled. 
Her friend sent her a present. 
Thomas asked me a question. 

(d) The following and some other verbs may be followed by indirect 
objects : allow, ask, bring, buy, get, give, leave, lend, make, offer, pass, 
pay, present, promise, refuse, send, show, sing, teach, tell, throw, write. 

(e) The indirect object closely resembles the Latin dative, and should 
always be parsed as the object of a preposition, usually to or for, unex- 
pressed but clearly implied. 

(/) As the relation between the verb's action and the additional object 
becomes less apparent, that is, as the verb becomes less able to express 
this relation, the preposition is always inserted ; as, — 
She set the table by me. 
He put the book near me. 

183. Thus it is seen that the construction known as 
the indirect object gradually shades off into the ordinary- 
construction, object of a preposition. 

184. The Object of the Verb teach may be either a word 

designating a person or a word designating a branch of 

study ; as in, — 

He teaches me Grammar. 

Either of the italicized words may be regarded as the di- 
rect object of teaches and the other as the object of a prep- 
osition. Thus the sentence may be construed either 

He teaches me in Grammar, 
or — 

He teaches Grammar to me. 



46 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

The verb teach, accordingly, may mean either to give in- 
struction to or to give instruction in. 

185. The Adverbial Objective or Objective without a Govern- 
ing Word. — Nouns used after intransitive verbs and ad- 
jectives, to express such ideas as time, distance, measure, 
and value, are often in the objective case, governed by un- 
expressed prepositions ; as, — 

He tried many times to do the work. 
Day and night the battle raged. 

(a) Such words cannot be governed by the verbs, which are intransi- 
tive, but must be parsed as the object of prepositions not expressed. 
In the first sentence above the preposition is on, at, or in ; in the second 
it is during. In many cases, however, it is difficult, sometimes impossible, 
to find a preposition that accurately expresses the relation. 

186. The Resultant or Factitive Object is an additional 
objective used to express the result of the verb's action on the 
receiver of this action ; as, — 

We appointed Louise secretary. 
We made him our assistant. 

(a) Such objects follow the verb make or a verb meaning to make, and 
are therefore called factitive ; they always express the result of the action, 
and may therefore be called resultant. 

(b) A resultant object should be regarded as an appositive, in apposi- 
tion with the direct object. 

187. The Objective Subject of an Infinitive. — As previously 
stated the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative 
case. So, the subject of an infinitive, when it depends 
wholly upon the infinitive, is in the objective case ; as, — 

We thought Marshall to be you. 
We thought him to be you. 

(a) When the subject of an infinitive is also the subject of a finite 
verb, the complement of a finite copula, or in apposition with a nomina- 
tive substantive, it is in the nominative case ; as, — 

The boy was thought to be you. 

He is the boy to be rewarded. 

James, the boy to be rewarded, is here. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 47 

188. The Objective Complement of an Infinitive Copula. — 
One of the most important rules of Grammar is, — A noun 
or pronoun used as the complement of a copulative verb is 
in the same case as its subject. To this rule there is the 
one exception : When the subject of a copulative participle is 
possessive, its complement is nominative; as, — 

Smith's being a doctor we felt more secure. 

189. The rule is applicable to 

(1) The Nominative Case ; as, — 

She thought Thomas was Sam. 
She thought he was I. 

(2) The Nominative Absolute Case ; as, — 

Henry being a merchant, we traded with him. 
Richard being he, we could not do otherwise. 

(3) The Objective Case ; as, — 

She thought Thomas to be Sam. 
She thought him to be me. 

(a) The complement of an infinitive copula is not always objective 
but only when its subject is objective. Thus, in 

Sarah hopes to be a musician, 
They were thought to be we, 
the complements are nominative, because the subject of each infinitive, 
being also the subject of a finite verb, is nominative. 

190. Objective in Apposition. — Apposition is the use of a 

substantive, without a connective element, to modify another 
in the same case and of the same signification. Apposition 
applies to 

(1) The Nominative Case, — 

Towser, the merchant, came. 

(2) The Nominative Absolute Case, — 

Towser, the merchant, wait on us. 

(3) The Possessive Case, — 

Towser the merchant's house was burned. 



48 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(4) The Objective Case, — 

We like Towser, the merchant. 
(a) Note that the appositive term is the one that explains the other. 

191. The object of a passive verb is sometimes spoken of 
but there is no such a construction. A verb in the pas- 
sive voice cannot govern an object. Its subject repre- 
sents the receiver of an action. 

192. Objective by Enallage. — By a figure of speech called 
enallage, the subject of a participle is sometimes given the 
objective form when it should have the possessive. This 
usage should not be encouraged, for it always gives the 
sentence a meaning different from the one intended. 
Thus, there is a great difference between 

There is no objection to the woman's speaking, 
and 

There is no objection to the woman speaking. 

193. The class will tell what the difference is and when 
each form should be used. 

194. Declension of Nouns is their variation in form to de- 
note case; as, 





SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nominative. 


girl 


girls 


Possessive. 


girl's 


girls' 


Objective. 


girl 


girls 



(a) Richard Grant White has called English the grammarless tongue, 
but by grammarless he means inflectionless. In the early stages of our 
language each case had a distinct form ; now only the possessive. In the 
sense that grammar is construction, no language has a grammar superior 
to ours. 

PASSING OF NOUNS. 

195. Parsing a word is giving, in order, its part of speech, 
its classes and subclasses, its properties, its government or 
construction, and the rule applying to its construction. 



PARSING OF NOUNS. 49 

196. Parsing affords a good opportunity to learn neatness, 
carefulness, and accuracy. Some of it may be oral, but 
most of it should be written in ink, with correct punctua- 
tion and capitals. 

197. A reasonable amount of parsing is excellent, but it 
can be easily overdone. It is not nearly so helpful as 
exercises in constructing original sentences to illustrate 
specified constructions. But parsing is less difficult and 
should therefore precede. 

MODEL FOR PARSING NOUNS. 

1. Part of Speech. 4. Person. 7. Case. 

2. Class. 5. Number. 8. Construction. 

3. Subclass. 6. Gender. 9. Rule. 

Timid women may manifest marvelous courage. 

Women, noun, common, class, third, plural, feminine, nominative, sub- 
ject of manifest, Rule I. 
Courage, noun, common, class, third, singular, neuter, objective, object 
of manifest, Rule IV. 

(a) On page 152 may be found the principal rules of English syntax. 
Every pupil should thoroughly master them so that he may quote them 
accurately and with full understanding and refer to them by their num- 
bers. 

(5) If the teacher so directs, the class may use abbreviations in pars- 
ing, but must be sure that proper forms are used and correct punctuation. 

Exercises for Written Parsing. — Parse italicized words. 

(1) The children have broken their dolls. 

(2) The chief excellence of Mary's character is its evenness. 

(3) A good start insures a good eliding. 

(4) Spare the rod and spoil the child. 

(5) As water its level, one loafer seeks another. 

(6) Last winter the child walked a mile through the snow. 

(7) Brown was appointed captain of the team. 

(8) The society wishes Mrs. Lawrence to be its secretary. 

(9) Helen desires to be a leader in all work. 

(10) The men wish Charles, the banker's son, to be their teacher. 



50 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



A WKITTEN KEVIEW OF NOUNS. 

(a) All answers must be written with neatness and accuracy. The 
pupils need not write the questions. For each question, write its corre- 
sponding number, and just after the number, the proper answer. 

(b) To prepare for a written review, the questions in it should be dis- 
cussed orally by the pupils and teacher, taking from ten to twenty ques- 
tions at a lesson. 

(c) The written reviews are invaluable. They can on no account be 
dispensed with. When, however, such an arrangement meets the approval 
of the teacher, he may, with the consent of the class, omit the term exam- 
inations for all pupils who have submitted written answers to all reviews 
and have shown the ability to step to the blackboard and defend their 
answers. 

(1) What is a noun ? 

(2) A substantive ? 

(3) Which is the broader term ? Explain. 

(4) Name the two classes of nouns. 

(5) Define and illustrate each. 

(6) Why do we have two classes ? 

(7) When does a common noun become proper ? A proper noun 
become common ? Illustrate. 

(8) Name the subclasses of common nouns. Of proper nouns. 

(9) Define and illustrate each subclass. 

(10) In what ways may a collective noun refer to its objects ? Give 
illustrations, noting the difference in the verbs. 

(11) Make a comprehensive statement concerning the gender of collec- 
tive nouns, giving illustrations. 

(12) Show how an abstract noun names its object. 

(13) Name the properties of nouns. 

(14) Define Person. Name the persons. Define and illustrate each. 

(15) Define Number. Name the numbers. Define and illustrate each. 

(16) Make ten important statements about the formation of plurals. 

(17) Define Gender. 

(18) Name the genders. Define each. Illustrate. 

(19) When is the gender of a collective noun neuter ? common ? mas- 
culine ? feminine ? Give illustrations. 

(20) Distinguish gender and sex. Show how we may have four gen- 
ders when there are only two sexes. 

(21) Define case. What cases do nouns have ? Define each. Illus- 
trate. 

(22) Distinguish case and form. 



WRITTEN REVIEW. 51 

(23) Discuss case as relation. 

(24) If case is to be regarded as relation, how do you distinguish case 
and construction ? 

(25) What are the two divisions of the nominative case ? 

(26) Name and illustrate the constructions belonging to each division. 

(27) Define a finite verb. An infinite verb. 

(28) In what case is the subject of each ? Illustrate. 

(29) Define a copulative verb. Illustrate. In what case is the com- 
plement of a copulative verb ? Illustrate. 

(30) Define a predicate noun. Illustrate. 

(31) Give the rule for the case of the complement of a copulative verb. 
To what cases does it apply ? Illustrate. State the exception. Illus- 
trate it. 

(32) When is a substantive in apposition ? 

(33) To what cases does apposition apply ? Illustrate. 

(34) Compare and contrast a predicate noun and a noun in apposition. 

(35) Name and illustrate the nominative absolute constructions. 

(36) Name the possessive constructions. Illustrate each. 

(37) How do singular nouns form their possessive ? Plural nouns ? 
Illustrate. 

(38) Tell what you know about the use of the possessive sign with a 
pair or series of nouns. With an appositive. 

(39) Tell when the subject of a participle is in the possessive case. 

(40) Name the objective constructions. Illustrate. 

(41) What is apposition ? To what cases does it apply ? Illustrate. 

(42) Define and illustrate a direct object. 

(43) What can you say about the object of an intransitive verb ? 

(44) Define and illustrate a cognate objective. 

(45) Give ten illustrations of the object of a preposition. 

(46) Define indirect object. Give six illustrations. 

(47) Tell what you know about the object of the verb teach, giving 
illustrations and explanations. 

(48) Explain and illustrate the adverbial objective or objective with- 
out a governing word. 

(49) Define and illustrate a resultant or factitive object. 

(50) Give ten illustrations of the objective subject of an infinitive. 

(51) Give ten illustrations of the objective complement of an infinitive 
copula. 

(52) Give the rule for the case of the complement of a copulative verb. 
To what cases does it apply ? Illustrate. 

(53) State the exception. Illustrate. 

(54) Give an example of a noun objective in apposition. 

(55) Define apposition. To what cases does it apply ? Illustrate. 



52 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(56) What can you say of the " object of a passive verb " ? 

(57) Explain the construction, u objective by enallage." 

(58) What is meant by the declension of nouns ? Illustrate. 

(59) What is meant by calling English the " grammarless tongue " ? 

(60) In what sense does English have a grammar ? 

(61) What is parsing ? What advantages may be derived from it ? 
What grammar exercises are better ? 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 53 



THE PRONOUN. 

198. When we wish to designate an object by naming 
it, we use a noun ; as, — 

Stephen broke the chair. 
Very often, however, we wish to designate objects with- 
out naming them. Then we use other words instead of 

nouns; as, — 

He broke it. 

These other words are pronouns. 

199. A Pronoun is a word used to designate an object 
without naming it; or, 

200. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : It, I, 
thou, you, he, she, and their declined forms are pronouns. 

CLASSES OF PK0N0UNS. 

201. Pronouns have three uses : — 

(1) To avoid the repetition of nouns ; as, " James told 
Martha that he would call on her," instead of James told 
Martha that James would call on Martha." Such pro- 
nouns show their grammatical person by their form. 
They are, therefore, called Personal Pronouns. 

(2) To ask questions ; as, — 

Wlio is with you ? What does he want ? 

These are Interrogative Pronouns. 

(3) To join a modifying clause to an antecedent; as, — 

The house, which was very valuable, was a great loss. 
The house that Jack built was made of words. 

These are Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns. 

202. A Personal Pronoun is one whose form shows its per- 
son. 



54 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

Thus, we know by their forms that I or we is of the 
first person ; thou, you, or ye, of the second person ; he, she % 
it, or they, of the third person. 

203. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used as the inter- 
rogative word in a question ; as, — 

Who came to see you ? What did he want ? 

204. A Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun is one that joins a 
clause to its antecedent ; as, — 

My aunt, ivho believes in order, censured us. 

The man, who has a bad temper, became angry. 

He that ruleth his own spirit is greater than he that taketh a city. 

(a) The term relative is used in most grammars ; but conjunctive is 
much more appropriate, because it expresses the distinguishing character- 
istic of this class of pronouns, — their connective use. 

205. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the substantive to 
which the pronoun refers. 

(a) The antecedent is usually a noun ; as in The bucket is where you 
left it. It may, however, be a phrase or a clause ; as, To repair the 
damage, which is the only thing to do, will be expensive. 

That the crime was committed, which some doubted, has been proved. 
She has finished her course of study and is now glad of it. 

(b) The antecedent of a relative pronoun is sometimes another pro- 
noun, personal or interrogative ; as, — 

He that laughs last laughs best. 
Who that knows him doubts him ? 

(c) Personal and relative pronouns follow their antecedents, except in 
inverted sentences. 

(d) The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun follows it, and is 
therefore more properly called the subsequent. The pronoun and the 
subsequent are in different sentences ; as, — 

Who wrote Hamlet ? Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. 

(e) A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and 
gender. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

206. A Personal Pronoun is one whose form shows its 
person. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 55 

(a) The antecedent of a personal pronoun may refer to a person, a 
brute animal, or lower object ; as, — 

The children came and they left. 

The horses are here and they will remain. 

The trees were planted and they grew. 

The marbles were saved, but they are not worth much. 

(6) You is used in addressing either one or more than one, but always 
requires a plural form of the verb; as, u You are," or a you were"/ 
never is or was. 

(c) Thou and ye, with their declined forms, are used in scriptural 
language. 

(d) Mine, thine, yours, ours, theirs, hers, are used instead of my, thy, 
your, our, their, her when the limited noun is omitted, but the two forms 
are parsed alike. 

(e) We is ordinarily used as the plural of I. It has also an editorial or 
representative use when the speaker conceives himself to be the repre- 
sentative of a class, school, doctrine, people, community, section, state, or 
nation. 

(/) The English language has no personal pronoun of the third per- 
son, singular number, common gender. 

(g) In using two or more pronouns of different persons, it is a matter 
of established courtesy to use the second person first and the first person 
last ; as, You, he, and I were praised. 

(h) Personal pronouns have two subclasses, simple and compound. 

(£) The simple personals are I, thou, you, he, she, it, and their de- 
clined forms. 

(j) The compound personals are myself, thyself, yourself, himself, 
itself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. They have two uses : — 

(1) Beflexive, used only in the objective case ; as, — 

She hurt herself; and 

(2) Intensive, used in the nominative or the objective case, as, — 

She herself likes John. 
She likes John himself. 

In the intensive use, which is merely for emphasis, the pronoun is 
always in apposition. 

PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 

207. Pronouns, whether personal, interrogative, or rela- 
tive, have the same properties as nouns, — person, number, 
gender, case. They have also the same constructions as nouns. 



56 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



DECLENSION OF PERSONAL. PRONOUNS. 

First Person. Second Person, 

singular. plural, singular. plural. 



Nominative. 


I. 


We. 


Thou. 


. you. 


Ye, you. 


Possessive. 


My. 


Our. 


• Thy, 


your. 


Your. 


Objective. 


Me. 


Us. 


Thee, 


you. 


You. 








Third Pbrson. 






SINGULAR. 






PLURAL. 




Masculine, 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


All genders. 


Nominative. 


He. 




She. 


It. 


They. 


Possessive. 


His. 




Her. 


Its. 


Their. 


Objective. 


Him. 




Her. 


It. 


Them. 



(a) Every pupil should fix the declension firmly, and should never lose 
sight of the fact that the object of declension is to associate the different 
forms with their corresponding persons, numbers, genders, and cases. 
Having mastered this, he may avoid all errors in the use of pronouns by 
understanding and applying a very few rules, — particularly Rule I., II., 
III., IV., V., VI., VII., and XIV. There is no other way to be able to 
use the pronouns correctly and with assurance. 

(6) When a pupil declines a pronoun, he should be permitted to use 
each case form in a sentence, and illustrate any nominative or objective 
construction the teacher or class may call for. 

(c) It will be observed that pronouns are much more highly inflected 
than nouns, or than any other part of speech except the verb. 

(d) Pronouns and verbs are technically more difficult and practically 
more important than all other parts of speech together. Nine tenths of 
all grammatical difficulties and nine tenths of all grammatical errors arise 
in connection with pronouns and verbs. Whatever else must be slighted, 
let pronouns and verbs be mastered. 



MODEL FOR PARSING PRONOUNS. 

1. Part of speech. 2. Class. 3. Subclass. 

4. Antecedent or Subsequent. 

5. Agreement in (#) Person, (5) Number, (<?) Gender. 

6. Rule. 7. Case. 

8. Construction. 9. Rule. 

The children left their books and /found them. 



PARSING OF PRONOUNS. 57 

208. Their, pronoun, personal, simple, antecedent, 
children, with which it agrees in third, plural, common, 
Rule XIV., possessive, and limits books, Rule VIII. 

209. I, pronoun, personal, simple, antecedent, name of 
the speaker, with which it agrees in first, singular, 
common, Rule XIV., nominative, subject oi found, Rule I. 

210. Them, pronoun, personal, simple, antecedent, boohs, 
with which it agrees in third, plural, neuter, Rule XIV., 
objective, object oi found, Rule IV. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

211. The class will write the parsing of italicized pronouns, 
using correct capitals, punctuation, and spelling. Grive 
orally the construction of italicized nouns. Mead to the 
teacher and class grammar references on all questionable 
constructions. 

(1) /like him. 

(2) His father works while he loafs. 

(3) We wish you would bring your friend to see our new schoolhouse. 

(4) Tours is as good as ours. 

(5) We must criticize ourselves on our mistakes. 

(6) Behold the moon ; she cometh forth in her beauty. 

(7) Jam older than he. You yourself told me about him. 

(8) Them that honor me, I will honor. 

(9) She thought he was /. 

(10) She wished to be a musician, but she wished me to be a farmer. 

(11) She is a good girl. 

(12) We think she is a good girl. 

(13) We think her to be a good girl. 

(14) She being a good girl, we all liked her. 

(15) She was believed to be a good girl. 

212. Fill the blanks with he, she, him, her, I, or me, and 
give the number of the rule that governs your selection : — 

(1) thinks am . 

(2) likes and . 

(3) came with Mary and . 



58 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



(4) 


sat between and 


(5) 


thought was 


(6) 


believes to be — 



but am supposed to be . 

213. Fill Hanks with we, us, they, and them, referring to 

the rule that governs each selection : — 

(1) Helen and are going with -. 

(2) Did you say that or were wanted ? 

(3) She hurt and . 

(4) Let none touch it but who are clean. 

(5) He thought were . 

(6) She thought were — — , but were supposed to be . 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

214. An Interrogative Pronoun is one that asks or implies 
a question. 

(a) If it directly asks a question, it is a direct interrogative ; as, 
14 Who came with you ? " If it indirectly implies a question, it is an 
indirect interrogative ; as, 4< We know who came with you." 

(b) There are two interrogative pronouns, who and what. 

(c) Which is often used interrogatively, but is better disposed of as 
an adjective than as a pronoun; as, " Which (pair) do you prefer?" 
Which always has a more definite reference than who or what. 

(d) What is an adjective when it immediately precedes a noun ; as, 
44 What answer shall I make ? " Who is never used adjectively. 

DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Nominative. Who. What. 

Possessive. Whose. What's. 
Objective. Whom. What. 

215. Who is used when it is supposed that the word 
answering to it will be the name of a person; what when 
it is supposed that the word answering to it is the name 
of anything else. 

216. The case and construction of an interrogative pro- 
noun are always the same as the case and construction of 
its responsive word in the answer ; as, — 

Who came ? George came. Who is it ? It is George. Whose book 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 59 

is it ? It is George's book. Whom does she like ? She likes George. 
Whom did he buy it for ? He bought it for George. 

Every interrogative word has the same construction in the 
interrogative sentence as the responsive word has in the 
declarative sentence that answers the question. 

(a) This is one of the most helpful of all grammatical rules. The 
class should be allowed to illustrate it by applying it to every kind of 
word that can ask a question. 

(6) An interrogative pronoun is never in the nominative absolute 
case, and is never in apposition. 

(c) No interrogative word is ever used as a connective. 

(d) An interrogative pronoun has no compound forms. 

(e) The form whatfs given in the declension is very seldom used. If, 
however, one should hear the statement, " Its leg was broken," the proper 
question would be, " What's leg was broken ? " "The table's." 

DIRECT AND INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

217. The direct interrogative pronoun asks a direct ques- 
tion and may be used in either a urincipal sentence or a 
substantive clause ; as, 

Who took the horse ? 

Who do you think took the horse ? 

218. The indirect interrogative pronoun never asks, but 
always implies, a question, and always occurs in a substan- 
tive clause ; as, 

Wlio took the horse is a question. 

We think we know who took the horse. 

He asked what is in the bucket. 

The question is, what is in the bucket. 

219. This distinction cannot be avoided by calling who 
and what relative pronouns in such sentences as the last 
four. They are not relative pronouns. They are not used 
like relative pronouns. Here are the tests : — 

(1) Who or what as a direct interrogative pronoun asks a 
direct question and may be used in either a principal sentence 
or a substantive clause. 



60 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(2) Who or what as an indirect interrogative pronoun 
never asks, but always implies, a question, and is always 
used in a substantive clause. 

(3) Who as a relative pronoun is always used in an 
adjective clause, which it joins to its antecedent. 

(4) What as a relative pronoun is always double, — equiva- 
lent to both an antecedent part and a relative part, — and 
can be expanded into the thing that or the thing which ; as, — 

I see what you have = I see the thing that you have. 

(a) No interrogative word, direct or indirect, is ever a connec- 
tive. No connective is needed for a substantive clause. 

(&) The declension of the indirect interrogative pronouns is the 
same as that of the direct interrogatives. The class will illustrate, using 
each form in a sentence. 

(c) The substantive clause containing the indirect interrogative 
pronoun may be used in any one of the three nominative or five objective 
constructions. Class will illustrate. 

(d) The construction of the indirect interrogative pronoun in the 
implied question is the same as would be that of the direct interrogative 
if the question were asked ; and the construction of the direct interroga- 
tive pronoun in the question is the same as that of the responsive word in 
the answer. Class will give illustrations. 

(e) Either a direct or an indirect interrogative pronoun may 
be used in any of the nominative or objective constructions except appo- 
sition. Class will illustrate. 

PARSING OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

(1) Who told you about it ? 

(2) What did you say she brought ? 

(3) I can guess whom she will appoint. 

220. Who, pronoun, interrogative, direct, subsequent, 
the responsive word in the answer to the question, with 
which it agrees in person, number, and gender, Rule XIV., 
nominative, subject of told, Rule I. 

221. What, pronoun, interrogative, direct, subsequent, 
the responsive word in the answer to the question, with 



PARSING OF PRONOUNS. 61 

which it agrees in person, number, and gender, Rule 
XIV., objective, object of brought, Rule IV. 

(a) Note that who and vjliat are both direct interrogative pronouns, — 
each asks a direct question, — but who occurs in a principal sentence, and 
what in a substantive clause. Whom in the following sentence is also in 
a substantive clause, but as it only implies a question it is an indirect 
interrogative pronoun. 

222. Whom, pronoun, interrogative, indirect, subsequent, 
the responsive word in the answer to the implied question, 
with which it agrees in person, number, and gender, Rule 
XIV., objective, object of will appoint, Rule IV. 

(a) An interrogative pronoun as subject generally requires a third 
person singular verb, but for convenience the models given above may be 
followed for all interrogative pronouns. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

223. Write in full the parsing of all italicized words. 
Discuss any other words having interesting constructions. 

(1) Who hurt you ? 

(2) Whom did you hurt ? 

(3) To whom did he apply ? 

(4) Who is in the library ? 

(5) Who is he? 

(6) Who is the President ? Taft is the President. 

(7) Who is your guest ? Our guest is Mr. Brown. 

(8) What would you give for the farm f 

(9) What would you give the farm for ? 

(10) What do you think he would give for the farm f 

(11) Do you know what he wishes you to be ? 

(12) Can you imagine vohom he thought to be me ? 

224. Fill each blank with the suitable pronoun, giving the 
number of the rule it illustrates. 

(1) is with the children ? 

(2) are they? 

(3) With are you working ? 

(4) does she suppose you think I am ? 

(5) do you think me to be ? 

(6) -_- do you think to be me ? 



62 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(7) do you think I am ? 

(8) do you think is I ? 

(9) You do not know he thinks we are. 

(10) Can you guess 1 thought she was ? 

(11) do you say she thinks I was supposed to be ? 

(12) The question, do you think I was supposed to be, she could 

not answer. 



RELATIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

225. A Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun is one that joins 
to its antecedent a limiting clause; as, — 

Boys that are industrious seldom fail. 

The tree, which was a large one, sheltered us. 

226. Note carefully the following points and illustrate 
each to the satisfaction of the teacher and class : — 

(1) A relative pronoun is found only in a complex 
sentence. 

(2) The relative pronoun is never found in the principal, 
but always in the subordinate sentence. 

(3) The antecedent of a relative pronoun is always found 
in the principal, never in the subordinate sentence. 

(4) The relative pronoun is always governed by some 
word in the subordinate, and never by any word in the 
principal sentence. 

227. There are five relative pronouns, — who, which, 
that, as, and what. 

228. As may be seen from the following sentences, the 
person and number of a relative pronoun are not shown 
by its form, but are to be determined only by its antece- 
dent: — 

I that did the work should receive the pay. 
You that did the work should receive the pay. 
He that did the work should receive the pay. 
They that did the work should receive the pay. 
We that did the work should receive the pay. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 63 

229. The substantive modified by the relative clause is 
the antecedent. It is commonly a noun or personal pro- 
noun ; as, — 

The horse, which was very tired, came slowly. 
He that is without blame may criticize. 

Sometimes, however, the antecedent may be, — 

(1) A phrase ; as, To go with him, which is to recommend 
him, would please him. 

(2) A sentence; as, The child came, which is evidence 
that it had been sent. 

(3) An interrogative pronoun; as, Who that has seen 
him will doubt him ? 

{a) The antecedent of a relative pronoun is never another relative 
pronoun. 

230. The antecedent is commonly in the nominative case 
or the objective, but occasionally it may be found in the 
possessive case or the nominative absolute ; as, 

His praise is lost who waits till all commend. 

Martha, who had visited us before, having promised to be there, we 
remained at home. 

CLASSES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

231. Relative pronouns have three classes, — simple, com- 
pound, double. 

(a) The simple relatives are who, which, that, as. 

(b) The compound relatives are those formed by annexing ever or so- 
ever to the simple relatives, who and which. That and as have no com- 
pound forms. The compound relatives are more comprehensive and less 
definite in their use than the simple relatives. 

(c) The double relative is what, — called double because it is equiva- 
lent to two parts, an antecedent part and a relative part. What as a 
double relative can be parsed only by expanding it into its equivalent 
parts and parsing them separately. When the sentence containing the 
double relative is expanded, it is seen that the antecedent part belongs in 
the principal sentence and the relative part in the subordinate clause ; as, 
" I gave him what I had" = " I gave him the thing that I had." The 



64 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

double relative what has also the compound forms, whatever and whatso- 
ever. 

PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS COMPARED. 

232. They are alike in, — 

(1) Both have antecedents. 

(2) Both agree with their antecedents in person, number, and gender. 

(3) Both have the properties and constructions of nouns. 

(4) Both have the subclasses, simple and compound. 

(5) Both are declined. 

233. They are unlike in, — 

(1) The relative has, and the personal has not, a connective use. 

(2) The personal has, and the relative has not, a distinct form for 
each grammatical person. 

(3) The personal may be used in either a principal sentence or a sub- 
ordinate clause ; the relative, only in a subordinate clause. 

(4) The relative may, and the personal may not, be double. 

DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

SIMPLE. DOUBLE. 

Nominative. Who, which, that. What. 

Possessive. Whose, whose, whose. 

Objective. Whom, which, that. What. 

COMPOUND. 

Nominative. Whoever, whosoever, whichever, which- 
soever. 
Possessive. Whosesoever. 
Objective. Whomsoever, whichever, whichsoever. 

(a) The double relative what and the simple relative as are not used 
in the possessive. 

(b) As is indeclinable; it may be singular or plural; masculine, 
feminine, or neuter ; nominative or objective. 

KINDS OF OBJECTS. 

234. Who refers to persons or to other objects personi- 
fied; as, — 

The doctor, who is a very good one, has hopes. 

The goose, who hated the dog, thus in winged words addressed him. 



KINDS OF CLAUSES. 65 

235. Which refers either to brute animals or to lower 
objects ; as, — 

The dog, which was well trained, made no mistake. 
The tree, which was a tall one, fell on the house. 
(a) In earlier English which was used for persons ; as " Our Father, 
which art in heaven," but it is not so used now. 

236. That refers to persons, brute animals, or lower ob- 
jects; as, — 

The man that lies there has a broken leg. 
The cow that lies there has a broken leg. 
The chair that lies there has a broken leg. 

KINDS OF CLAUSES. 

237. Clauses in which relative pronouns are used are of 
two kinds, restrictive and nonrestrictive or explanatory. 

238. A Restrictive Clause is one that restricts or narrows 
the application of the antecedent ; as, — 

Men that are lazy find life's road rough. 
A horse that is gentle is valuable. 
A field that is cultivated yields good returns, 
(a) A Restrictive Clause has the force of an adjective ; as, lazy 
men, a gentle horse, a cultivated field. 

239. A Nonrestrictive or Explanatory Clause is one that 
explains the antecedent, or expresses a thought as additional 
to the one contained in the principal sentence; as, — 

Books, which are great educators, are our friends. 

A doctor, who is needed in every community, should be a strong man. 

The house, which was a large one, could be seen from the station. 

(a) While a restrictive clause has the force of an adjective, a non- 
restrictive clause is more like an appositive, although both clauses are 
regarded as adjective elements. 

(6) The distinction between restrictive and explanatory clauses is 
very important. Let the class master the definitions. Each member 
must be able to point out readily the relative clauses in the Algebra, 
Literature, History, Physiology, and other studies, and to tell whether 
each is restrictive or nonrestrictive, and why. Also, he must be able to 



66 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

give in his own language, and on any of the school subjects, illustrations 
of each kind of clause, using in each the most suitable relative. 

(c) An explanatory clause is, and a restrictive clause is not, set off 
by commas. 

THE RELATIVE TO BE PREFERRED. 

240. In Restrictive Clauses modern English shows a 
preference for that, but who and which are also used ; as, — 

(1) The man that told you is mistaken. 

(2) The horse that ran away is not to be trusted. 

(3) The gate that you see cannot be opened. 

(a) Although that is preferable, some good writers would be as likely 
to use who in (1) and ivhich in (2) and (3). 

241. In Explanatory Clauses, who and which are used. 

(1) The man, who had told us, now told them. 

(2) The horse, which runs away, is dangerous. 

(3) The gate, which is broken, cannot be used. 

(a) In construing a relative clause, observe the punctuation. If the 
clause is set off by commas, it is intended to be exclamatory ; if it is not 
set off by commas, it is restrictive, regardless of the relative that is used. 

(b) In writing your own relative clauses, first determine what force 
you wish each clause to have. If it is to narrow or limit the antecedent, 
then you use a restrictive clause, not set off by commas ; if it is to ex- 
plain the antecedent or express a thought as additional to that of the 
principal sentence, then you use a nonrestrictive clause, containing who 
or which and set off by commas. 

(c) When a relative is immediately preceded by a preposition, it must 
be whom or which, not that ; as, — 

He is the boy by whom I sat. 

The relative pronoun that can be used as the object of a preposition only 
when the preposition ends the sentence ; as, — 

He is the boy that I sat by. 

(d) When a sentence contains two relatives referring to different ante- 
cedents, it is better for euphony to use that in one clause and who or which 
in the other ; as, — 

I know a woman who has a daughter that is very beautiful, or 
I know a woman that has a daughter who is very beautiful. 



THE CONNECTIVE USE. 67 

242. As is a relative pronoun after such, many, and same; 

as, — 

Such help as I have is at your disposal. 

As many people as came were seated. 

The same temptations as he met we must meet. 

(a) The relative as is used only in restrictive clauses. 

(&) What and whatever are sometimes used as the respective equiva- 
lents of which and ivhichever ; as, — 

What assistance you have you need, = You need the assistance which 
you have ; and 

Whatever consolation he gets he is entitled to, = He is entitled to the 
consolation whichever he gets. 

In such cases what and whatever are not double relatives. 

THE CONNECTIVE USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

243. It has already been pointed out that a relative 
pronoun occurs only in a complex sentence, and only 
in a subordinate clause of a complex sentence. We 
must now see the connective use of the relative. The 
sentence, "I like boys, who are the men of to-morrow," 
is equivalent to, " I like boys, and they are the men of to- 
morrow." It is seen that who performs the office of the 
two words, and and they. That is, it has the substantive 
use of all pronouns, and in addition it has the connective 
use of the conjunction. It should, therefore, be called 
conjunctive pronoun. It is thought best for the present to 
use relative and conjunctive interchangeably as applied 
to pronouns. 

(a) The connective use of a relative pronoun is to join its subordi- 
nate clause to its antecedent. 

(b) To be remembered: the relative pronoun occurs only in the sub- 
ordinate sentence and is governed by some word in the subordinate 
sentence; the antecedent occurs only in the principal sentence and is 
governed by some ivord in the principal sentence. 

(c) When the pronoun it is the subject of a copulative verb, it is often 
modified by a relative clause that follows the predicate ; as, — 

(1) It is the tree that frightens my horse. 



68 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(2) It is I that calls him. 

(3) It is you that is to blame. 

The three sentences are evidently the respective answers to the ques- 
tions : — 

(1) What is it that frightens my horse f 

(2) Who is it that calls him ? 

(3) Who is it that is to blame? 

244. If the first sentence is regarded as the answer to 
the question, What tree is it ? then, the relative clause, 
that frightens my horse, must be construed with tree. 

245. In all such sentences we must be guided by the 
meaning and construe the clause accordingly. It is not 
uncommon for speakers, writers, and even grammarians 
to mistake the force of such clauses. In most cases they 
belong with the subject, it; it is the antecedent of the 
relative, and the verb in the clause should therefore be 
third person, singular instead of agreeing in person and 
number with the predicate noun or pronoun. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

246. A relative pronoun may have any dependent nomi- 
native or objective construction except apposition. It may 
be possessive, limiting a substantive of different significa- 
tion, or used as the subject of a participle having a depend- 
ent substantive use. Discuss the following illustrations : — 

247. Nominative Constructions : — 

(1) Subject of a finite verb, — The boy that came is George. 

(2) Complement of a finite copula, — The boy that you are will win. 

248. Objective Constructions : — 

(1) Object of a transitive verb, — George is a boy that I like. 

(2) Object of a preposition, — The boy that I spoke to is George. 

(3) Subject of an infinitive, — The boy that I thought to be you is 
George. 

(4) Complement of an infinitive copula, — The boy that I thought you 
to be is George. 



PARSING OF PRONOUNS. 69 

249. Possessive Constructions : — 

(1) Limiting a noun of different signification, — The boy whose father 
came is George. 

(2) Subject of a participle, — The boy whose coming surprised his 
father is George. 

(a) No relative pronoun is ever in apposition or in any absolute 
construction. 

(6) In the illustrations given above only the relative that is used, 
whose being the possessive of that, and the clauses are all restrictive. 
The teacher should permit each pupil to illustrate these constructions, 
using who and "which in explanatory clauses. 



THE PARSING OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

250. (1) A house that is built on the sand will fall. 
That, pronoun, conjunctive, simple, antecedent, house, 

with which it agrees in third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, Rule XIV., nominative case, subject of 
is built, Rule I. 

251. (2) Whoever listens will hear. 

Whoever, pronoun, relative, compound, antecedent [he], 
with which it agrees in third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, Rule XIV., nominative case, subject 
of listens, Rule I. 

252. (3) I shall accept what he offers = I shall accept 
the thing that he offers. 

What, pronoun, relative, double, = to the thing that. 

Thing, the antecedent part, noun, common, third per- 
son, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, object 
of shall accept, Rule IV. 

That, the relative part, pronoun, relative, simple, ante- 
cedent, thing, with which it agrees in third person, singu- 
lar number, neuter gender, Rule XIV., objective case, 
object of offers, Rule IV. 

(a) Let pupils state orally the principal sentence, and the clause ; also, 
the antecedent and the relative and their constructions. 



70 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

253. Write the full parsing of all italicised words, and 
give orally the case and construction of all other words 
designated by the teacher or class. Be careful to distin- 
guish the double relative what from the indirect interrogative 
what. Designate each principal sentence, each subordinate 
clause, each antecedent, and each relative pronoun. Tell 
whether the clause is restrictive or explanatory, and why. 
State definitely the connective use of the relative pronoun. 
Read to teacher and class grammar references on all ques- 
tionable constructions. 

(1) The obstacles that lie in our way give us strength. 

(2) The good that we do to others helps us. 

(3) He is the man of whom you spoke. 

(4) The earth, which God created, is the home of his children. 

(5) Homer, whom we believe to have been the author of the Iliad, 
was a blind poet. 

(6) Martha is the girl that Henry said Susan thought was Hazel. 

(7) Hazel is the girl that Henry thought Susan said Martha was. 

(8) Susan is the girl that Hazel said Henry thought to be Martha. 

(9) Henry says Hazel is the girl that Susan thought Martha to be. 

(10) What one attempts is not always what one accomplishes. 

(11) Whatever he can prove to be his he takes. 

(12) I asked what he did. 

(13) I saw what she did. 

254. Fill the blanks with who or whom, designating by 
number the rule illustrated. Tell whether each word sup- 
plied is a conjunctive or an interrogative pronoun. Name 
the antecedents. Designate the principal sentences and the 
subordinate clauses. Tell whether the clause is restrictive or 
explanatory. State the connective use of each conjunctive 
pronoun. Note the verb in the clause. When possible, 
change a finite verb to an infinitive or an infinitive to a finite 
verb, noting carefully the case and construction of every sub- 
stantive both before and after the change. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 71 

(1) The man was with me was Mr. Black. 

(2) guessed I called ? 

(3) She admires that man, we know to be worthless. 

(4) do men say that I am ? 

(5) does she think to be you ? 

(6) do you think to be her ? 

(7) do you think is I ? 

(8) do you think I am ? 

(9) She is the lady, you supposed to be us. 

(10) She is the lady, you supposed us to be. 

(11) She is the lady, was thought to be I. 

(12) She is the lady, I was thought to be. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

255. Rule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of 
a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

Men must work and women must weep. 

Who ever thought we should be here ? 

The men who are prepared get the positions. 

(a) In applying this rule to the pronoun, we are liable to error : — 

(1) When the pronoun is the subject of an objective clause; as, — 

He thought Mary and me won. (I) 

Whom does she think is successful ? ( Who) 

He is the boy whom we said would fail. (who) 

(2) When the verb is omitted; as, — 

He is older than me. (7) 

(b) The subject of a finite verb may be, — 

(1) A noun, — Grammar is difficult. 

(2) A pronoun, — Who knows where she put the book that lay here ? 

(3) An infinitive, — To live is more than to exist. 

(4) A participle, — Living is more than existing. 

(5) A clause, — Why he did it is a mystery. 

(c) It as the subject sometimes is followed by an infinitive phrase or 
a clause in apposition with it ; as, — 

It is difficult to solve the problem. 
It is possible that he may win. 



72 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(d) The introductory expletive, there, is often used to introduce a sen- 
tence in which the subject follows its verb ; as, — 

There appeared a stranger sight. 

256. Rule II. — The subject of an infinitive is in the 
objective case when it does not depend upon any other word. 

(1) She wishes us to learn. 

(2) Whom do you wish to have your money ? 

(3) She is the girl whom they thought to be me. 

(a) The subject of an infinitive may be, — 

(1) A noun, — We expected Alfred to come to us. 

(2) A pronoun, — We expected him to come to us. 

Whom do you expect to come to us ? 

The man whom you expect to come to us is Alfred. 

(3) Another infinitive, — He thinks to make a noise to be to sing. 

(4) A participle, — He thinks making a noise to be singing. 

(5) A clause, — He thinks that I made one mistake to be evidence that 
I cannot be trusted. 

(b) This rule is often violated when the subject of an infinitive is a 
noun and a pronoun ; as, — 

George believes Henry and 7 to be mistaken, (me) 

(c) The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to before it, but 
the sign is nearly always omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, do, have, 
hear, let, make, need, see ; as, — 

Make him be still. 
We heard him say it. 
I saw him do it. 

257. As the rule implies, the subject of an infinitive may 
depend upon some other word ; when it does, it is always 
governed by that other word, not by the infinitive. Thus, the 
subject of an infinitive may be also, — 

(1) The subject of a finite verb ; as, — 

She wishes to learn. 

Who wishes to have your money ? 

We know who wishes to have your money. 

She is the girl who was thought to be I. 

(2) The complement of a copulative verb ; as, — 

He is a man to be avoided. 

(3) In appositiori ; as, — 

Jones, the man to be employed, is capable. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 73 

258. Rule III. — When the subject of a participle does 
not depend upon any other word in the sentence, it is in the 
possessive case or nominative absolute : possessive when the 
participle is used as a noun in a dependent construction, and 
absolute when the participle with its subject is used inde- 
pendently. 

259. As the rule implies, the subject of a participle 
may depend upon some other word; when it does, it is 
always governed by the other word, not by the participle. 
Thus, the subject of a participle may be also, — 

(1) The subject of a finite verb ; as, Bobert falling broke the pitcher. 

(2) The object of a transitive verb ; as, We saw Bobert sitting on a 
box. 

(3) The complement of a copulative verb ; as, He is a boy making a 
great effort. 

(4) The object of a preposition ; as, We sat by the man holding the 
camera. 

(5) In apposition ; Bryan, the man giving the lecture, is a great orator. 

260. In the following sentences, the subjects of the 
participles, not depending upon any other words, illustrate 
the rule. The subjects of the participles in (1), (2), and 
(3) are in the possessive case ; in (4) and (5) they are in 
the nominative absolute case. 

(1) Peter's leaving disappointed us. 

(2) We object to your disturbing us. 

(3) We were annoyed by their whispering to us. 

(4) Black having been nominated, we voted for him. 

(5) The general having been killed, the battle was lost. 

261. Discuss the following sentences: — 

(1) There is no objection to that woman's voting for him. 

(2) There is no objection to that woman voting for him. 

262. The subject of a participle may be, — 

(1) A noim, — The carriage having gone, we walked. 

(2) A pronoun, — They having come, we went home. 

(3) An infinitive, — To stand having been forbidden, we remained 
seated. 



74 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(4) A participle, — Standing having been forbidden, we remained 



(5) A clause, — That he could have committed the crime having been 
proved, they inferred that he did commit it. 

(a) There is not much liability to error in using either nouns or pro- 
nouns according to this rule. Its value is chiefly technical. 

263. Rule IV. — The object of an active transitive verb 

is in the objective case. 

Every poet loves nature. 

The man hurt George and me. 

Whom does he prefer ? 

The gentleman whom you saw is Riley. 

(a) Not only finite verbs, but infinitives and participles as well, when 
active and transitive, govern objects ; as, — 

The man buying the potatoes intends to eat them. 

(b) Intransitive verbs never govern objects. 

(c) No verb in the passive voice can govern an object. 

(d) For the indirect object, see article 182 c ; for the resultant object, 
article 186 ; for the adverbial objective, article 185. 

264. The object of a transitive verb may be, — 

(1) A noun, — William caught the fish. 

(2) A pronoun, — We like him and her. 

Whom did he question ? 

The boy whom we all admire is Richard. 

(3) An infinitive, — You like to study. 

(4) A participle, — He condemns teasing the children. 

(5) A clause, — He believes we are succeeding. 

(a) The rule is violated most frequently when the object of a transi- 
tive verb is a noun and a pronoun; as, — 
He likes Henry and I (me). 
She criticized Sara and he (him). 

265. Rule V. — A noun or vronoun used as the object 

of a preposition is in the objective case. 

He came from Borne to Paris, in company of many eminent men, and 
passed with them through many cities. 

266. The object of a preposition may be, — 

(1) A noun, — She placed it on the table. 

(2) A pronoun, — Please go with us. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 75 

(3) A participle, — You help him by remaining with him. 

(4) An infinitive, — She made no preparation except to read the les- 
son. 

(6) An adjective, — On high. 

(6) An adverb, — From here to there is ten feet. 

(7) A prepositional phrase, — He came from over the sea. 

(8) A clause, — We were talking about ivho broke the glass. 

(a) This rule is often violated when a pronoun together with a noun 
is used as the object of a preposition ; as, She spoke to Paul and I (me). 

(b) For the adverbial objective, see article 185. 

(c) The relative pronoun that precedes the preposition that governs 
it; as, — 

He is the gentleman that I sent for. 

Also, sometimes in poetry and in the inverted order of prose, a prepo- 
sition may follow its object; as, — 

From peak to peak the rattling crags among. 
His preparation we did not inquire about. 
But ordinarily the preposition precedes its object. 

267. Rule VI. — A noun or pronoun used as the com- 
plement of a copulative verb is in the same case as its sub- 
ject, — except when the subject of a copulative participle is 
possessive, then the complement is nominative. 

(a) The rule itself applies to the nominative, the objective, and the 
absolute case ; by the exception the complement is nominative while the 
subject is possessive. 

268. (1) Nominative, — 

He is & farmer. 

If I were she, I should try to be teacher. 

Who are you ? 

He is the man that I thought you were. 

269. (2) Objective,— 

I thought her to be George. 

She thought him to be me. 

Whom did they suppose us to be ? 

She is the lady whom I thought Helen to be. 

270. (3) Absolute,— 

The winner being Brown, we were all pleased. 
The winner being I, the others were disappointed. 



76 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

271. (4) The Exception, — 

Your being the winner pleased us. 
Your being he does not excuse you. 

(a) The complement of a copulative verb is always a noun or an ad- 
jective or some other expression so used, and is always called the attribu- 
tive complement. 

(6) The class will be careful to distinguish the attributive complement, 
as in, u Tom is a hoi % se," from the objective complement, as in, " Tom has 
a horse." 

(c) Be careful to distinguish intransitive verbs that are used as impure 
copulas followed by attributive complements, from transitive verbs fol- 
lowed by objective complements ; as in — 

He appears every inch a soldier. 
Every minute he hears a soldier, 

(d) A transitive verb in the passive voice is often followed by an 
attributive complement, as in, " He was elected chairman," but never by 
an objective complement. 

272. Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun in apposition is 
in the same case as the noun or pronoun it explains. 

273. Apposition is the use of a substantive, without a con- 
necting element, to limit another in the same case and of the 
same signification. 

(a) The predicate noun or attributive complement is often mis- 
taken for an appositive. They resemble in this : each is in the same case 
and of the same signification as the substantive it refers to. Here is the 
difference : The predicate noun has, and the appositive has not, a con- 
necting element to join it to the substantive it refers to. Compare, — 

John is a lawyer. 
John, the lawyer, came. 

(&) The appositive term is the one that explains the other. 
(c) The appositive term usually follows the one explained, but may 
come before it ; as, — 

Child of the sun, refulgent summer comes. — Thompson. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 77 



APPOSITION APPLIES TO AIX CASES. 

274. (1) Nominative, — Matthew, the merchant, came. 

275. (2) Nominative Absolute, — Matthew, the merchant, 
having told us, we believed it. 

276. (3) Possessive, — That is Matthew the merchant's 
house. See article 178 d. 

277. (4) Objective, — We all like Matthew, the mer- 
chant. 

(a) When a noun in the possessive case is limited by another noun 
in apposition with it, the possessive sign is put to the noun immediately 
preceding the name of the object possessed ; as, — 

Bring me John the Baptist's head. 

(b) The resultant or factitive object should be parsed as in apposition 
with the direct object ; as, — 

We chose Gladys secretary. 

Make me a child again, just for to-night. 

278. Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun limiting another 
noun signifying a different thing is in the possessive case. 

Henry's slate was lost. 
Jones's house was repaired. 

(a) The idea of possession may be denoted by the possessive sign, 's, 
or by the objective case following the preposition of ; as, — 

The history of America (America's history) is interesting. 

Which method is used is merely a matter of euphony. 

(6) Singular nouns and plurals not ending in s form their possessive 
by annexing 's ; as, — 

The child's lesson was learned. 
The children's lessons were learned. 

(c) Plurals ending in s usually form their possessive by annexing only 
\ as, — 

Boys' clothing. Girls' games. Birds' nests. 

(d) A noun in the possessive case limited by another noun in appo- 
sition with it transfers its possessive sign to the appositive ; as, — 

It is so by the Judge Bowser's decision. 



78 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(e) A noun in the possessive case limited by a prepositional phrase 
transfers its possessive sign to the object of the preposition ; as, — 

The captain of the Alabama 's wife died yesterday. 

(/) In a pair or series of nouns denoting common possession, the 
possessive sign is annexed only to the last ; as, — 

Black and Blair'' s Arithmetic. (Together they have one book.) 
Black and Blair 1 s Arithmetics. (Together they have more than one.) 

(g) In a pair or series of nouns denoting separate possession, the pos- 
sessive sign is annexed to each noun ; as, — 

Black's and Blair's Arithmetic. (Each has one book.) 
Black's and Blair's Arithmetics. (Each has more than one.) 

(h) The subject of a participle may also be in the possessive case, but 
this construction has been explained under Rule III. 

279. Rule IX. — A noun or pronoun used independently 
is in the nominative absolute case. 

(1) By Exclamation, — Speaking with feeling the name of a thing 

thought of ; as, — 

The will, the will, let us hear the will. 

(2) By Address, — Using a person's name in speaking to him ; as, — 

Mr, Spurgeon, may we assist you ? 

(3) By Pleonasm, — Using a noun before a sentence referring to the 
same thing ; as, — 

The constitution, it shall be our guide. 

(4) By Inscription, — Using a noun, out of- sentence relations, on 
signs, monuments, coins, circulars, letters, or announcements. 

(a) When the name of a person addressed is put after the sentence, it 
is impossible to tell whether to parse it as absolute by address or in appo- 
sition with the preceding pronoun ; as, — 

I appeal to you, Mr. Chairman. 

(b) The subject of a participle may also be in the nominative absolute 
case, but this construction has been explained under Rule III. 

280. Rule XIV. — A pronoun agrees with its antecedent 

in person, number, and gender. 

(a) Most of our nouns are of the third person, singular or plural. A 
noun of the first person is used in only two constructions, — in apposition 
with a pronoun of the first person, and in the absolute case by inscription. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 79 

(b) The person and number of our personal pronouns are nearly always 
shown by their form : — 

I, my, me are of the first person, singular number. 

We, our, us are of the first person, plural number. 

He, his, him are of the third person, singular number, masculine gen- 
der. 

She, her, her are of the third person, singular number, feminine gender. 

They, their, them are of the third person, plural number, and their 
gender may be masculine, feminine, common, or neuter. 

(c) Two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor must 
be represented by a singular pronoun ; as, -«- 

If she asks for a penny or a pound, she gets it. 

(d) The English language has 710 personal pronoun of the third per- 
son, singular number, common gender. To represent such anteced- 
ents, usage has sanctioned the use of masculine pronouns ; as, — 

Every person is expected to do his (not their) duty. 
Several attempts have been made to form a pronoun of the third person, 
singular number, common gender, but they serve only to provoke smiles. 
The best usage continues to prefer the masculine forms, or to use the 
indefinite pronominal adjective, one, as the subject and then repeat it 
instead of the pronoun ; as, — 

When one plays with the fire, one must expect an occasional burn. 

(e) The pronoun it is often preferable to represent the name of an 
infant or of an animal when we do not care to distinguish the sex ; as, — 

The child sleeps in its cradle. 
The sheep lost its way. 

(/) Masculine and feminine pronouns are used to represent the names 
of inanimate objects personified ; as, — 
The sun rises in his glory. 
The ship brings her cargoes from the east. 

(g) A collective noun conveying the idea of unity must be represented 
by a pronoun of the third person, singular number, neuter gender ; as, — 
The mob swept everything in its way. 

281. A collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, 
that is, referring to its objects individually, must be repre- 
sented by a plural pronoun, whose gender is determined by 
the sex of the objects denoted ; as, — 

The class wear blue and gold caps on their heads. See article 155. 



80 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

A EEVIEW OP PK0N0UNS. 

(1) What is a pronoun? How is a pronoun like a noun? How 
unlike a noun ? 

(2) Name the three uses of pronouns and the three corresponding 
classes. Define each class and give illustrations. 

(3) Define antecedent. Give illustrations. 

(4) Tell when we use the forms mine, ours, etc., instead of my, our, 
etc. Illustrate. 

(5) State and illustrate in what order pronouns of different persons 
should be used. 

(6) What are the subclasses of personal pronouns ? Illustrate. 
What are reflexive and intensive pronouns ? Illustrate. 

(7) Name the properties of pronouns. 

(8) Illustrate each property with each class of pronouns. 

(9) What is meant by the construction of pronouns ? 

(10) What is declension ? Decline a personal pronoun. Use each 
declined form in a sentence. 

(11) What are the two most important parts of speech ? Why ? 

(12) Independently of the book and the teacher, what is your opinion 
of parsing ? 

(13) What is the value of filling blanks, or completing incomplete 
sentences ? Is it better than parsing, or not so good ? What gram- 
matical exercise is better than either ? Why ? 

(14) Define an interrogative pronoun. Name the interrogatives. 
Use each in a sentence. 

(15) Decline each interrogative pronoun. Use each case form in a 
sentence. 

(16) Give a rule for determining the case and construction of an 
interrogative pronoun. Give illustrations of the rule. 

(17) In what cases is an interrogative pronoun used ? Illustrate. In 
which case is it not used ? 

(18) What interrogative word may be used as a connective ? 

(19) Distinguish the direct and the indirect interrogative pronoun. 

(20) Use each declined form of who and ivhat as an indirect in- 
terrogative pronoun. 

(21) In what kind of sentences can a direct interrogative pronoun be 
used ? Illustrate. An indirect interrogative pronoun ? Illustrate. 

(22) Distinguish an indirect interrogative and a relative pronoun* 
giving illustrations. 

(23) What kind of a clause needs no connective ? 

(24) What kind of a clause is an indirect interrogative pronoun 
always found in ? 



A REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 81 

(25) Use such a clause in three nominative and five objective con- 
structions, observing that each clause contains an indirect interrogative 
pronoun. 

(26) In what nominative or objective construction is an interrogative 
pronoun never used ? 

(27) Use a direct and an indirect interrogative pronoun in each of the 
other nominative and objective constructions. 

(28) What is a relative pronoun ? What would be a more appropriate 
name for it ? Why ? 

(29) Make four important statements concerning relative pronouns. 
Illustrate each statement. 

(30) Name five relative pronouns. Use each in a sentence. 

(31) What may the antecedent of a relative pronoun be ? Illustrate. 

(32) In what case may the antecedent of a relative pronoun be ? 
Illustrate. 

(33) Name and illustrate the three classes of relative pronouns. 

(34) Distinguish who and what as direct interrogative, indirect in- 
terrogative, and relative pronouns. 

(35) In what are personal and relative pronouns alike ? Unlike ? 

(36) Which of the relative pronouns are indeclinable? Decline each 
of the others and use each declined form in a sentence. 

(37) What kind of objects is referred to by each of the relatives, who, 
which, and that f 

(38) What are the two kinds of relative clauses ? Define and 
illustrate each. How is each to be punctuated ? In what kind of clause 
may we use each of the relatives, who, which, that ? How may you 
determine the kind of relative clause a sentence contains ? In writing 
your own sentences how do you determine which kind of clause to 
use ? 

(39) Which relatives may and which may not immediately follow 
prepositions ? Illustrate. 

(40) When is as a relative pronoun ? Illustrate. 

(41) Explain and illustrate the connective use of a relative pronoun. 

(42) Discuss the following sentence, — It was the pig that walked 
the wire. 

(43) What nominative constructions may relative pronouns have ? 
Possessive constructions ? Objective constructions f Illustrate each, 
using that in restrictive clauses. Illustrate each, using who or which 
in nonrestrictive clauses. What constructions may a relative pronoun 
not be found in ? 

(44) What are the liabilities to error in applying Rule I.? Illustrate. 

(45) What may be the subject of a finite verb? Illustrate. 

(46) Discuss it and there as used to introduce sentences. 



82 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(47) When is the subject of an infinitive in the objective case? The 
nominative case f Give illustrations. 

(48) What may be the subject of an infinitive ? Illustrate. 

(49) Use a personal pronoun, a direct interrogative pronoun, an 
indirect interrogative pronoun, and a relative pronoun, each in the 
objective case, the subject of an infinitive. Each in the nominative case, 
the subject of an infinitive. 

(50) When is the subject of an infinitive not governed by the in- 
finitive ? Illustrate. 

(51) When is Rule II. most commonly violated ? Illustrate. 

(52) When is the subject of a participle governed by the participle ? 
In what case is it ? Illustrate. 

(53) When is the subject of a participle not governed by the 
participle ? In what case is it then ? Illustrate. 

(54) What additional constructions may the subject of a participle 
have ? Illustrate. 

(55) What may be the subject of a participle ? Illustrate. 

(56) State Rule IV. Illustrate it with a noun, a personal pronoun, a 
direct interrogative, an indirect interrogative, and a relative pronoun. 

(57) Discuss the object of an intransitive verb. The object of a 
passive verb. 

(58) What may be the object of a transitive verb ? Illustrate. 

(59) When are we most likely to violate this rule ? Illustrate. 

(60) Use the word musician as a direct object, or accusative objec- 
tive ; indirect object, or dative objective ; resultant, or factitive 
object. Use some other noun as an adverbial objective, or objective 
"without a governing "word. 

(61) In what case is the object of a preposition ? 

(62) What may the object of a preposition be ? Illustrate. 

(63) When are we most likely to violate Rule V.? Illustrate. 

(64) Use as the object of a preposition, — a noun, & personal pronoun, 
a direct and an indirect interrogative pronoun. 

(65) Use in this construction, the relative pronouns, who, which, and 
that in restrictive clauses, and who and which in explanatory clauses. 

(66) Which of the relatives may, and which may not, immediately 
follow the prepositions that govern them? Illustrate. 

(67) State the rule for the case of the complement of a copulative 
verb; state the exception. Illustrate both, giving all the cases reached 
by the rule and exception. 

(68) Use according to this rule, and in each of the cases, a noun, a 
personal pronoun, a direct and an indirect interrogative pronoun, the 
relative that in restrictive clauses, and the relatives who and which in 
explanatory clauses. 



A REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 83 

(69) Illustrate and criticize the common violations of this rule. 

(70) What is the case of a noun in apposition ? What is apposition ? 
Which is the appositive term? What may be an appositive ? Illustrate. 

(71) What is a, predicate noun f How are a predicate noun and an 
appositive alike ? JIow unlike ? 

(72) To what cases does apposition apply ? Illustrate. 

(73) State and illustrate the rule governing the possessive case. 
Tell how the possessive is formed, singular and plural, and give illus- 
trations. 

(74) Show how the rule applies to a series of terms denoting common 
possession. Denoting separate possession. When the possessive term is 
limited by an appositive or by a prepositional phrase. Illustrate. 

(75) Give Rule IX. governing the absolute case. Illustrate four 
different applications of the rule. What other rule touches the absolute 
case? 

(76) Give the rule for the agreement of a pronoun with its antecedent. 
Show the application of this rule to each kind of pronoun, — personal, in- 
terrogative, relative. Illustrate how Rule XIV. is most commonly 
violated. 

(77) What personal pronoun does the English language lack ? What 
is the best usage with reference to a substitute for such pronoun ? 

(78) What kind of pronoun follows two or more singular antecedents 
connected by or or nor f Illustrate. 

(79) What kind of pronoun is used to represent a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of unity? Illustrate. 

(80) What kind of pronoun is used to represent a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of plurality f Illustrate. 



84 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

282. We have already seen that objects differ so much 
that it is necessary to put them in different classes and to 
give them different names; as, woman, lily, vine. We are 
now to observe that objects belonging to the same class 
have different qualities or attributes, which it is often con- 
venient for us to name ; and also that many times we 
wish to point out or refer to an object, without either nam- 
ing its qualities or applying a proper name to it. Hence 
arises another part of speech, called the Adjective, by which 
we may refer to an object or designate its qualities. 

283. An Adjective is a word used to limit a noun or pro- 
noun so as to point out or refer to an object, or to designate 
quality ; as, that flower, seven trees, an ox, small potatoes, 
industrious women, sour grapes. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES AS TO MEANING. 

284. Since adjectives may mean either quality or mere 
reference, there are two general classes of adjectives, 
descriptive and definitive. 

285. A Descriptive Adjective is one that limits a substantive 
so as to denote quality ; as, smooth roads, beaming smiles, 
warm clothing, interminable forests. 

286. A Definitive Adjective is one that limits a substantive 
so as merely to point out or refer to an object without denot- 
ing quality ; as, every man, forty hogs, yonder mountain, 
an explanation. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES AS TO MANNEK OF MODIFICA- 
TION. 

287. The preceding classification is based upon the 
adjective itself, the idea it expresses. If the adjective is 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 85 

descriptive, it is not definitive. But according to the 
present classification, according to the manner of modification, 
the same adjective may belong to any one of three classes. 

288. It may modify a substantive directly. It is then 
a direct adjective. It may complete a copula and at the 
same time modify its subject. It is then a predicate ad- 
jective. It may modify the direct object in such a way as 
to express a quality that is the result of the verb's action. 
Then it is a resultant adjective. 

289. A Direct Adjective is one that modifies a substantive 
directly; as, a sceptical man, & furious animal. 

290. A Predicate Adjective is one that completes the predi- 
cate and modifies the subject; as, The man is sceptical. 
The animal is furious. 

291. A Resultant Adjective is one that modifies the direct 
object in such a manner as to express a result of the verb's 
action; as, Wrong training made the man sceptical, Scold- 
ing and whipping made the animal furious. 

(a) A noun in any construction may be modified by a direct adjective. 

(b) A predicate adjective always modifies the subject and completes 
the predicate. 

(c) 'Resultant adjectives are often called factitive adjectives. 

(d) Every resultant adjective modifies the direct object, but not every 
adjective that modifies the direct object is resultant. 

(e) Since a resultant adjective always modifies a direct object, it 
always follows an active verb ; when the verb is changed to the passive 
voice, the resultant adjective changes to a predicate adjective ; as, — 

He drew the line straight, The line was drawn straight. 

SUBCLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

292. Descriptive adjectives have the subclasses : — 

(1) Common, any ordinary quality word, — cold, long. 

(2) Proper, derived from a proper name, — Turkish, 
Italian. 

(3) Participial, derived from a verb, — vacillating, 
deceiving. 



86 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

293. Definitive adjectives have the subclasses : — 

(1) Articles, a, an, the. 

(a) The is the definite article ; a or an, the indefinite article. 

(2) Pronominals, those that may be used substantively ; 
as, One sometimes sets out to do what later one would not 
wish done. 

(3) Numerals, those denoting number, — four, thirty, 
seventh. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

294. It would be impossible to enumerate the qualities 
of objects. Most qualities exist in different degrees. 
Some men are strong, others stronger, and yet others not 
so strong. How many degrees of strongness are there ? 
An infinite number. So of any other quality that is vari- 
able. Language is able to express only a few of these 
different degrees of any quality. The adjective itself, by 
varying its form, can express only five degrees ; as, — 

least strong, less strong, strong, stronger, strongest. 
This variation in the form of the adjective is called 
comparison. 

295. Comparison is a variation in the form of the adjective 
to express different degrees of quality ; as, — 

heavy, heavier, heaviest, or heavy, less heavy, least heavy ; beautiful, 
more beautiful, most beautiful, or beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

296. There are three degrees of comparison, — positive, 
comparative, superlative. 

297. The Positive is the simple form of the adjective, used 
when the object is not compared with any other with respect 
to this quality ; as, — 

warm weather, commendable acts, uncertain signs. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 87 

298. The Comparative is the form of the adjective that 
expresses a higher or lower degree than the positive, used 
when two objects are compared; as, — 

warmer weather, more commendable acts, more uncertain signs, or 
less warm weather, less commendable acts, less uncertain signs. 

299. The Superlative is the form of the adjective that ex- 
presses the highest or lowest degree, used when any number 
of objects more than two are compared; as, — 

warmest weather, most commendable acts, most uncertain signs, or 
least warm weather, least commendable acts, least uncertain signs. 

(a) It will be noted that, since there are two comparatives and two 
superlatives, the three degrees of comparison express five degrees of 
quality. 



KINDS OF COMPARISON. 

300. Any quality that varies upward may also vary 
downward. We have, therefore, two kinds of compari- 
son : — 

Ascending, — objectionable, more objectionable, most objec- 
tionable. 

Descending, — objectionable, less objectionable, least objec- 
tionable. 

METHODS OF COMPARISON. 

301. There are three methods of comparison : — 

(1) By different terminations ; as, sharp, sharper, sharp- 
est. 

(2) By different words ; as, good, better, best. 

(3) By prefixes ; as, fortunate, more fortunate, most 
fortunate, or fortunate, less fortunate, least fortunate. 

(a) Descending comparison is always by the prefixes less and least ; 
the other methods apply only to ascending comparison. 



88 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(b) In ascending comparison most monosyllables are compared by the 
terminations er and est, and most words of more than one syllable are 
compared by the prefixes, more and most. There are exceptions, how- 
ever, which the student will learn in literature. 

(c) There are several words which in their strict signification express 
qualities that exist in but one degree, but which in a looser signification 
are used to express the quality as varying ; as, fuller, rounder, most per- 
fect. Such forms are used by our best writers. 

(d) The termination ish is sometimes given to an adjective, forming 
what has been called the diminutive degree, lower than the positive and 
yet different from the lower comparative or the lower superlative ; as, 
reddish, bluish, greenish. 

MODEL FOR PARSING ADJECTIVES. 

1. Part of Speech. 4. Degree. 

2. Class. 5. Construction. 

3. Comparison. 6. Rule. 

The earliest flowers are not always sweetest. 

302. The, adj., defin., definite article, limits flowers, 
R. X. 

303. Earliest, adj., des., — early, earlier, earliest, — 
super, degree, and limits flowers, R. X. 

304. Sweetest, adj., des., predicate, — sweet, sweeter, 
sweetest, — superlative degree, and limits flowers, R. X. 

SELECTIONS FOR WRITTEN PARSING. 

(1) Old England has produced great poets. 

(2) He thought of his sister, proud and cold, 
And his mother vain of her rank and gold. 

(3) Failures may be valuable, and successes dangerous. 

(4) The summer breezes blow soft and cool. 

(5) He cooks rare meat. 

(6) He cooked the meat rare. 

(7) The meat was cooked rare. 

(8) He painted a red barn. 

(9) The barn was painted red. 
(10) He painted the barn red. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 89 

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

305. All misuses of adjectives are included under choice, 
number, comparison, position. 

306. Choice of Adjectives. — First determine the meaning to 
be conveyed and then select the adjective that best expresses 
it. 

(a) Make frequent use of a good dictionary. Learn exact meanings 
of words, their synonyms and antonyms. If you find that you have a 
few adjectives which you use too frequently, enlarge your vocabulary. 
Select a list of adjectives you have never used, learn their exact meanings, 
make an effort to express these meanings in conversation and in your 
compositions. After doing this consciously for a while one will find that 
the new adjectives have become a permanent part of his vocabulary, and 
he will then use them without effort. 

(b) Avoid such pet adjectives as awful, lovely, nice, splendid, ele- 
gant, terrible, grand, bad, except when you wish to express their proper 
meanings. 

(c) Do not use good for well, less for fewer, or both with same or 
alike; as, both the same, both alike. 

(d) Do not use an adjective for an adverb, or an adverb for an adjec- 
tive ; as, Extreme bad weather ; She looks so sweetly ; How is your 
brother? Very nicely, thank you. 

307. The Number of an Adjective. — In an inflected lan- 
guage adjectives agree with their nouns in number, gen- 
der, and case. We have no trace of this in English 
except a slight effort on the part of a few adjectives to 
agree with their nouns in number. These and those are 
the respective plurals of this and that. 

(a) We use this and these when the object or objects are thought of 
as being nearer than the object or objects we would denote by that or 



(5) Avoid the use of these or those for this or that before such nouns 
as kind, sort, molasses. 

(c) After numerals, it is allowable to use the singular form of such 
words as couple, pair, dozen, hundred, thousand; as, six couple of 
promenaders, ten pair of shoes, seven dozen cherries, three hundred 
head of cattle. 



90 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

308. Comparison of Adjectives. — We use the comparative 
degree in speaking of two objects, and the superlative when 
we speak of more than two ; as, — 

He is the taller of the two. 
She is more beautiful than her sister. 
Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians. 
She is the loveliest of women. 

RUL.ES of comparison. 

309. I. The positive degree is used when it is not intended 
to suggest a comparison ; as, — 

Eve was a fair woman. 

310. II. The comparative degree is used when the object it 
refers to is not included among those with which it is com- 
pared; as, — 

Eve was fairer than any of her daughters. 

311. III. The superlative degree is used when the object 
referred to is one of those with which it is compared ; as, — 

Eve was the fairest of women. 

(a) It would not be correct to say, either, Eve was the fairest of her 
daughters, or, Eve was fairer than any woman. 

(6) Avoid double comparatives and superlatives ; as, more wiser, most 
unkindest. 

312. Position. — An adjective commonly comes just before 
the word it limits, but adjectives may follow their nouns, — 

(1) When used as predicate adjectives ; as, — 

The minstrel was infirm and old. 

(2) When the adjective is resultant or factitive ; as, — 

She washed the dress dean. 

(3) When the adjective is modified by a prepositional or 
infinitive phrase ; as, — 

He wishes a horse suitable for driving. 

The man hired a clerk good to look at but not to sell goods. 



WRITTEN REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 91 

(4) When the adjective modifies a pronoun ; as, — 

What else have you ? 

(5) In poetry ; as, — 

He thought of his sister proud and cold. 

(a) When a noun is limited by both an ordinal and a cardinal adjective, 
the usage is not uniform. Some writers say, the first three ; others, the 
three first. 

(6) An adjective frequently modifies a word not expressed ; as, Many 
[persons] are called, but few [persons] are chosen. Such are pronomial 
adjectives. Some authors call them adjective pronouns. 

(c) Any expression used substantively may be modified by an adjective. 
Illustrate. 

(d) One adjective sometimes seems to modify another ; as, She wore 
a bright red hat. It should then be regarded as an adverb. 

(e) An adjective frequently modifies a noun as modified by some other 
word; as, The merchant keeps no cheap goods. The meaning evidently 
is, not that he keeps no goods, but that he keeps no cheap goods. 

(/) The words like, nigh, near, and next are frequently followed by 
objectives. It is better to regard these words as prepositions. Formerly 
they were treated as adjectives, and the following objectives were said to 
be governed by prepositions not expressed. 

WKITTEN EEVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 

(1) Show why we have adjectives. 

(2) Define an adjective. 

(3) Name two general classes with reference to meaning. Define 
each. Illustrate. 

(4) Name the three classes with reference to the manner of modifi- 
cation. Define each. Illustrate. 

(5) What is comparison ? Illustrate. 

(6) Why are adjectives compared ? 

(7) What adjectives are compared ? 

(8) In how many degrees may a quality exist ? 

(9) How many of these are expressed by the adjective itself ? 

(10) When do we use the positive degree ? The comparative ? The 
superlative ? 

(11) Name and illustrate two kinds of comparison. 

(12) Name and illustrate three methods of comparison. 

(13) Name and illustrate the chief forms of error in the use of the 
adjective. 



92 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(14) Use each of the following adjectives, (1) as direct, (2) as predi- 
cate, (3) as resultant : old, cold, long, clean, infirm, reckless, rich, rare, 
right, strong, mighty, faithless, innocent, beautiful, famous, furious, 
frantic, wild, worthy, wise, mindful, mad, sick, well, angry, weak, accept- 
able, agreeable, patient, intelligent, intelligible. 

(15) Name ten adjectives sometimes misused. Give illustrations of the 
misuses. Use a suitable adjective in place of each. Make a correct use 
of each of the misused adjectives. 



THE VERB. 93 



THE VERB. 

(1) Birds fly. 

(2) Carpenters build houses. 

(3) The horses have been shod. 

(4) He has my pencil. 

(5) Do you expect Gladys to become a teacher ? 

(6) The man speaking to you is Dr. Johnson. 

313. The italicized words express relations. Fly, build, 
have been shod, and has, assert or affirm relations; to become 
and speaking only assume relations. All such words are 
verbs. 

314. The Verb is the part of speech that asserts or assumes 
relation, 

(a) Some grammarians, indeed most of them, exclude infinitives and 
participles from the class of verbs. They, therefore, define verbs as 
words that assert. Reason plays a large part — and should play a larger 
part — in the classifications of Grammar. High school students are ca- 
pable of reasoning and of appreciating it. On pp. 155-174 are set forth 
the reasons for the classification of verbs here submitted. The classifica- 
tion must stand or fall with those reasons. 

(5) The word assert is to be taken in a very wide sense, including 
questions and commands. 

(c) We can say of the verb what can be said of no other part of 
speech, — without it a sentence cannot exist. Of all the parts of speech, 
the verb is technically the most difficult and practically the most im- 
portant, with the pronoun as its close rival in both respects. 

((f) Other parts of speech — prepositions, conjunctions, conjunctive 
adverbs, and relative pronouns — express relation ; only verbs can assert 
or assume it. 

(e) The verb is not always a single word, but is sometimes a verb 
phrase ; as, can run, has gone, shall have been discovered, to have been 
taken, having been driven. 

(f) The predicate of every sentence must be a verb or contain one, for 
it is the only part of speech that can predicate. 

(g) The verb is difficult. It cannot be made easy, but it is intensely 
interesting. The student will be richly repaid for the time he spends in 
mastering it. 



94 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 

315. To have a complete classification of verbs we must 
make it upon five different bases, — relation to subjects, 
relation to objects, completeness of predication, form, and 
rank. 

316. According to their Relation to Subjects verbs are 
finite or infinite. In the sentences, — 

I run, He runs, They run, 

we note that the form of the verbs is modified by the person and number 
of their subjects. They are finite verbs. But in the following sentences, — 

He wishes me to run, I wish him to run, We wish them to run; 

She saw me running, I saw him running, We saw them running, — 
the italicized verbs retain the same form regardless of the person and 
number of their subjects. They are infinite verbs. 

317 A Finite Verb is one whose form may be modified by 
the person and number of its subject. 

.318. An Infinite Verb is one whose form is never modified 
by the person and number of its subject. 

(a) Owing to the very meager inflection of English, the modification 
of even our finite verbs for person and number, is except in the case of 
the verb to be confined exclusively to the present tense. Illustrate. 

(?;) The two forms of the infinite verb illustrated above, to become 
and speaking, are respectively the infinitive and the participle. 

(c) Every transitive verb has four infinitives ; as, — 

to sing, to have sung, to be sung, to have been sung ; 
and four participles ; as, — 

singing, having sung, being sung, having been sung. 

(d) As an intransitive verb cannot be in the passive voice, it has only 
two infinitives and two participles. 

(e) Some grammarians of note class infinitives and participles as nouns 
and adjectives. The reasons for regarding them as forms of the verb are 
given in articles 483-616. 

(/) The thorough discussion of infinitives and participles should be 
deferred till after the class has completed the study of all parts of speech. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 95 

319. According to their Action's Relation to Objects. — In 

the sentences, 

The cobbler patched the boot, The girl sang a song, 

The boot was patched by the cobbler, A song was sung by the girl, 

the action expressed by each verb is represented as going 
across from an agent to an object. Such verbs are called 
transitive, because transitive means to go across. 

But in such sentences as, — 

The glass glitters, He stands awkwardly, 

while each verb expresses the action of an agent, it does 
not represent it as going across to an object. Such verbs are 
intransitive, because intransitive means not to go across. 

320. A Transitive Verb is one that represents the action 

of an agent as terminating upon an object. 

The dog caught a rabbit, A rabbit was caught by the dog. 

Fire burnt the hay, The hay was burnt by fire. 

We send the children to school, The children are sent to school by us. 

Mr. Jones buys cattle, Cattle are bought by Mr. Jones. 

321. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not represent the 

action of an agent as terminating upon an object. 

The dog barks up the tree, The rabbit was running, 

The fire sparkles in the chimney, The hay rots in the field. 

(a) Every verb that takes an object is transitive ; but only half of the 
transitive verbs take objects, since the active form of every transitive verb 
has its corresponding passive form. See (b). 

(b) Every verb in the passive voice is transitive, but no verb in the pas- 
sive voice takes an object. 

(c) A verb may be intransitive even when its action terminates upon 
an object ; as, — 

He sent for the man, I leaned against the post. 

If the verb requires the aid of a preposition to represent the termination 
of its action upon an object, it is intransitive. If, without the aid of a 
preposition, a verb represents the termination of its action upon an object, 
it is transitive ; as, — 

He sent the man, He leaned the post, 

The man was sent by him, The post was leaned by him. 



96 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(d) Verbs commonly transitive are often intransitive. 

(1) When used to refer the action to no definite object ; as, — 

Charles speaks, William reads. 

(2) When an active form is used in a passive signification ; as, — 

The instrument tunes easily. 

(e) Verbs commonly intransitive are often transitive. 

(1) When they have objects similar in signification to themselves ; 

as ' I dreamed a dream, 

She sang a song, 
He lived a noble life. 

(2) When used in a causitive sense ; as, — 

James trots his pony. 

(3) When used in a poetic sense ; as, — 

Eyes looked love to eyes. 

(f) A transitive verb expresses action only ; an intransitive verb may 
express action, being, or state. 

(g) Sometimes an intransitive verb in the passive form is made transi- 
tive by being compounded with a preposition ; as, — 

The property was disposed of. We were laughed at. 

(h) In a few cases it may be allowable to regard a preposition or an 
adverb as a part of the verb in the active form ; as, — 

We should not put off duty, He tried to get up, 

The man came to, I set up the stove. 

This is done only when the combination expresses a single idea ; as, put 
off = postpone, came to — awoke, get up — arise. If the combination can 
be treated as different parts of speech without marring the meaning, it 
should be done. 

(i) In such sentences as, — 

She laughed herself hoarse, He ate himself sick, 

no very satisfactory disposition can be given of the italicized words 
following the intransitive verbs. Probably the least unsatisfactory dis- 
position is to regard each as the subject of the infinitive to be not ex- 
pressed. 

322. According to their Completeness of Predication. — The 

two sentences, 

He farms, and He is a farmer, 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 97 

may convey precisely the same meaning. In the first, 
however, the predication is completed by the verb farms, 
which both asserts and expresses the attribute; while in 
the second, the verb is does not complete the predicate, 
but only asserts the attribute that is expressed by another 
word, farmer. Farms is a verb of complete predication, and 
because it contains the attribute it asserts, it is called an 
attributive verb; is is a verb of incomplete predication, and 
because it only couples to its subject an attributive ex- 
pression, it is called a copulative verb. 

323. An Attributive Verb is one that expresses the attribute 

it asserts or assumes. 

He sends messages, He expects to preach sermons, 

He steals, He wishes to sing songs. 

She writes, 

324. A Copulative Verb is one that asserts or assumes an 
attribute expressed by some other word or words. 

He is a sender of messages, He expects to be & preacher of sermons, 
He is a thief, He wishes to be a singer of songs. 

She is a writer, 

(a) The distinction between attributive and copulative verbs is one 
of the most perplexing and one of the most important. It must be mas- 
tered. 

(&) All active transitive verbs are in one sense verbs of incomplete 
predication. They differ from copulative verbs in this : what completes 
an active transitive verb is an objective complement, but what completes 
a copulative verb is an attributive complement. Distinguish with care : — 

Isaac was a musician, and Isaac saw a musician. 
Leo is a good dog, and Leo has a good dog. 

(c) The complement of a copulative verb is always a substantive or 
an adjective, or some other expression so used. It may be a noun, pro- 
noun, adjective, infinitive, participle, phrase, or clause. Allow the class 
to illustrate. 

(d) The predicate always includes a copula and an attribute, whether 
the two are expressed together or separately ; as, — 

Henry teaches = Henry is a teacher. 



98 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

The predicate is always a verb or contains one, since it is the only part 
of speech that can predicate. 

(e) Many verbs in the passive voice may be used as copulas; as, — 

He was elected chairman. She was considered honest. 

(/) Although the verb to be is the only pure copula, it is often 
purely attributive. It is copulative when it asserts or assumes an attri- 
bute expressed by some other word or words, and attributive when it 
denotes merely to exist. In Whatever is, is right, the first is is attributive 
and the second copulative. In the two following sentences, all the verbs 
are attributive, — 

(1) Troy was, but is not now. 

(2) What was, is no more, and what is will not be. 

((/) How to distinguish a Copulative Verb. — It is often difficult, 
and sometimes impossible, in isolated sentences, to distinguish the passive 
voice from the copulative verb to be with a predicate adjective. For 
example, in such sentences as, — 

The pitcher was broken, The field was plowed, 
The house was covered, The coat was torn, 

we are unable without the context to determine the meaning. Each sen- 
tence may be intended to tell the condition of some object ; in which case 
we have a copulative verb followed by a predicate adjective. Or it may 
refer to an act that was done ; then we have a transitive verb in the 
passive voice. 

(h) Classes of Copulas. — The only pure copula is some form of 
the verb to be ; as, am, is, be, was, ivere, been, to be, being. Many other 
verbs are used as impure copulas ; as, He seems honest, He looks tired, 
He appears happy, He sits erect. When we combine the two, we have 
what is called the complex or double copula ; as, He seems to be well, 
He was considered to be reliable. 

(i) Uses of the Verb to be. — The verb to be has three distinct 
uses ; one as an auxiliary ; as, — 

He is buying a horse ; 

and two, as a principal verb, either copulative or attributive ; as, — 

God is good, God is. 

( j) The construction of a phrase may often be determined by not- 
ing the use of the single word that may take its place. Thus, — 

He is without a home = homeless, adjective ; 
He is in health = well, adjective. 

He is in Texas = there, adverb. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 99 

(k) An attributive verb may often be expanded into a copula 
and an attributive complement, as, — 

He sells clothing = He is a seller of clothing ; 
She giggles = She is a giggler. 

325. According to their Form verbs are regular or irregular, 
and strong or weak. 

326. The Principal Parts of a verb are the forms of it from 
which all its other forms are obtained. They are the present 
indicative, past indicative, and past participle. 

327. Present Indicative, — the simple form of the verb, 
the form always found in the dictionary ; as, 

am, see, plow. 

328. Past Indicative, — the form of the verb used to 
represent past time indefinitely ; as, 

was, saw, plowed. 

329. Past Participle, — the form of the verb that expresses 
time more definitely than the Past Indicative, by relating 
it to some other time, — past, present, or future, — implied 
by the sentence; as, — 

been, seen, plowed. 

330. The examples given above show that some verbs 
form their past indicative and past participle by changing 
the ending of the present indicative to ed ; as, plow, plowed, 
plowed ; move, moved, moved; plant, planted, planted; kill, 
killed, killed. These are called regular verbs. 

331. The verbs that do not form their past indicative 
and past participle in this way are called irregular verbs. 

332. A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Indicative 
and Past Participle by changing the ending of the Present 
Indicative to ed. 

333. Irregular verbs are of three kinds : — 

334. Complete, — those having a full set, and only a full 
set of principal parts ; as, write, wrote, written; go, went, gone. 



100 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

335. Defective, — those lacking some of the principal 
parts ; as, beware, quoth, ought. 

336. Redundant, — those having more than a sufficiency 
of principal parts ; as, strike, cleave. 

(a) The present active infinitive and the present active participle are 
also sometimes named as principal parts ; as, to be, to ring, to laugh ; 
being, ringing, laughing. 

(b) The past participle is often called the perfect participle, and an- 
other name for the past indicative is the imperfect. 

(c) The final e of the present indicative must be dropped before ed is 
added to form, the past indicative and past participle, as in case of the 
verb move. 

337. Strong and Weak Verbs. — According to their form, 
verbs are classified into strong and weak. 

338. A Strong Verb is one that forms its past indicative 
and past participle by varying the root vowel; as, steal, stole, 
stolen; sing, sang, sung ; break, broke, broken. 

339. A Weak Verb is one that forms its past indicative 
and past participle by adding ed, d, or t to the present in- 
dicative; as, mash, mashed, mashed; hear, heard, heard ; feel, 

felt, felt. 

(a) Commonly, but not always, the past participle of a strong verb 
ends in en. 

(b) The classification of verbs into weak and strong corresponds closely 
but not completely with that into regular and irregular. All strong verbs 
are irregular, but not all irregular verbs are strong. Illustrate, Also, all 
regular verbs are weak, but not all weak verbs are regular. Illustrate. 

(c) Why called strong and weak. — Originally all our verbs were 
irregular ; but there has been a tendency for them to form their past in- 
dicative and past participle by changing the ending of the present in- 
dicative to ed, d, or t. Those that have yielded to the tendency, includ- 
ing all regular verbs and many others, are called weak verbs ; those 
that have withstood the tendency, including most of our irregular verbs, 
are called strong verbs. 

340. The Conjugation of a Verb includes the naming and 
designating its principal parts ; as, — 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 



101 



Present Indicative, move, ring, do, take. 
Past Indicative, moved, rang, did, took. 
Past Participle, moved, rung, done, taken. 

341. The following lists include the irregular verbs 
most commonly used. It is very important to be able to 
use irregular verbs correctly. Their mastery is a matter 
of memory and practice. The first list includes verbs 
whose past indicative and past participle are different ; 
the second list, those whose past indicative and past par- 
ticiple are alike. It is in using verbs of the first list that 
error is most likely to occur. 

(a) For verbs not listed here and for listed verbs having two forms 
for one of the principal parts the student must consult a dictionary. 

(b) The best method of acquiring a correct use of irregular verbs is 
the repetition of their different forms in spoken and written sentences. 
Let the class urge the teacher to assign an abundance of such exercises. 
Every time a pupil is asked to name the principal parts of a verb, he 
should be permitted also to use each form in a sentence. 

(c) In case where more than one form is sanctioned, the one supposed 
to represent the best modern usage is placed first, and if marked r, it has 
also a regular conjugation. 

1. The Two Past Forms Different. 



Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part 


Am, 
Arise, 


was, 
arose, 


been, 
arisen. 


Bite, 


bit, 


J bitten, 
{bit. 


Bear, 


bore, 


born. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown, r. 


Bear, 


bore, 


borne. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Beat, 


beat, 


J beaten, 
[ beat. 


Choose, 

Come, 


chose, 
came, 


chosen, 
come. 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 




| begot, 


J begot, 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Beget, 


1 begat, 


{begotten. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Begin, 


f began, 
[begun, 


begun. 


Eat, 
Fall, 


ate, 
fell, 


eaten, 
fallen. 




f bade, 


J bidden, 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Bid, 


Ibid, 


{bid. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 



102 



GEAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, r. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Get, 
Give, 


got, 
gave, 


[got, 

[gotten, 
given. 


Speak, 
Spring, 


spoke, 
f sprang, 
{sprung, 


spoken, 
sprung. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden. 






f struck, 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Strike, 


struck, 


| stricken. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven, r. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Ring, 
Rise, 


rang, 
rose, 


rung, 
risen. 


Swim, 


(swam, 
{ swum, 


swum. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Thrive, 


throve, 


thriven, r. 




f shrank, 


J shrunk, 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Shrink, 


{ shrunk, 


\ shrunken. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 




J sang, 




Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Sing, 


{sung, 


sung. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, r. 


Sink, 


sank, 


sunk. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 










2. The Two Past or ti 


IE Threi 


3 Forms At 


JKE. 


Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


Present, 


Past Ind. 


Past Part 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode, r. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent, r. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Bereave, 


bereft, 


bereft, r. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Bet, 


bet, 


bet, r. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Dig, 


dug, 


dug, r. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Dream, 


dreamt, 


dreamt, r. 


Bless, 


blest, 


blest, r. 


Dress, 


drest, 


drest, r. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt, r. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Build, 


built, 


built, r. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Burn, 


burnt, 


burnt, r . 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst, r. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Gild, 


gilt, 


gilt, r. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 



103 



Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


Present. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


Gird, 


girt, 


girt, r. 


Smell, 


smelt, 


smelt, r. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped, r. 


Hang, 


hung, 


hung, r. 


Spell, 


spelt, 


spelt, r. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


spilt, r. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Split, 


split, 


split, r. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Spoil, 


spoilt, 


spoilt, r. 


Kneel, 


knelt, 


knelt, r. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Knit, 


knit, 


knit, r. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Stave, 


stove, 


stove, r. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Stay, 


staid, 


staid, r. 


Learn, 


learnt, 


learnt, r. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


String, 


strung, 


strung, r. 


Light, 


lit, 


lit, r. 


Sweat, 


sweat, 


sweat, r. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Plead, 


plead, 


plead. 


Wake, 


woke, 


woke, r. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept, r. 


Quit, 


quit, 


quit, r. 


Wet, 


wet, 


wet, r. 


Bead, 


read, 


read. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound, r. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought, r 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


TjpWQ fp 






Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


-UC > V CXii. C>, 

Can 


prmlrl 




Set, 


set, 


set. 


Have, 


had (aux'y) , 




Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


May, 

Must 


might, 




Shine, 


shone 


shone, r. 
shod. 




Shoe, 


shod, 


Ought, 


U.1 UOU) 

ou^ht 




Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


quoth, 










Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Shall 


ctnmilrl 




Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Will 


1 






slept, 


slept. 


(aux'y) 


\ would, 




Sleep, 




Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 








Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 








Slit, 


slit, 


slit, r. 









104 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

342. According to their Rank. — In the sentences, — 

I see, I do see, I can see, I shall see, 
the action is expressed by the verb see, and the verbs do, 
can, shall, only assist the verb see. Because they are thus 
used to aid other verbs, they are called auxiliary verbs, 
while verbs that may be used either with or without 
auxiliaries are principal verbs. 

343. Auxiliary Verbs are those used to assist other verbs 
in expressing property or modification. 

344. Principal Verbs are those that may be used either with 
or without auxiliaries. 

(a) The auxiliary verbs are be and have in all their forms : do, did ; 
may, might; can, could; mast; will, would; shall, should. 

(b) Be and have in all their forms ; do, did, will, and would may be 
used also as principal verbs ; as, ; — 

She does the work. I did it. 

Will me your property. I would that I had any property. 

345. It is helpful to note definitely the idea which the 
auxiliary helps the principal verb express in each particu- 
lar sentence. It may assist the principal verb in express- 
ing many ideas, but the chief ones are, — 

(1) Progression : The men are building the barn. 

(2) Passivity : The barn was built. 

(3) Time : They were building. They are building. They will build. 

(4) Emphasis : You do build. You did build. 

(5) Power or Ability : We can build. 

(6) Completion : We have built the barn. 

(7) Permission : You may build my barn. 

(8) Probability or Possibility : He may build it. 

(9) Reasonableness : It might be built. 

(10) Compulsion : You shall build it. 

(11) Necessity : You must build it. 

(12) Duty : He should build it. 

fl3) Willingness : We would build it if we could. 

(14) Adaptation : This lumber will do for the building. 

(15) Tendency : In time the building will fall. 

(16) Question : Will you build it ? Shall we build it ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 105 

(17) Determination, Promise, or Command: I will build it. You 
shall build it. Thou shalt not build it. 

IDEAS EXPRESSED BY AUXILIARY VERBS. 

346. Do and did are used chiefly for emphasis ; as, You 
do trust him. You did trust him. 

347. Can in the present and could in the past express 
power or ability ; as, I can lift it. He could lift it. 

348. May in the present and might in the past express 
liberty or permission ; as, You may have it. You might 
use it. 

(a) Might sometimes expresses possibility ; as, It might have been ; 
and may, probability ; as, It may rain. 

(b) May placed before the subject asks a question or expresses a 
wish ; as, May I remain ? May you always succeed. 

(c) Can is often incorrectly used for may ; as, Can I use your pencil ? 
Can George sit by me ? 

349. Must expresses necessity, — physical, intellectual, 

or moral ; as, — 

Men must work, and women must weep. 
We must accept his conclusion. 
We must tell the truth. 

SHALL AND WILL, SHOULD AND WOULD. 

350. These words are often misused, but the difficulty 
of using them correctly has been exaggerated. The fol- 
lowing principles are very simple, and they will guide us 
in most cases : — 

(1) Shall or -will always expresses futurity. 

(2) In addition to futurity, either shall or will may express also the 
additional idea of determination, command, or promise. 

(3) The speaker or writer will first determine from his thought whether 
he wishes to express merely futurity or this idea together with determi- 
nation, command, or promise. Then by remembering (4) and (6) he 
will know whether to use shall or will. 

(4) Shall in the first person expresses only futurity ; in the second 
and third it expresses also determination, command, or promise ; as, 



106 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

I shall see you to-morrow. You shall have a good time. Thou shalt not 
lie. He shall regret it. 

(5) Will in the second or third person expresses only futurity ; in the 
first it expresses also determination, command, or promise ; as, You 
will understand it. He will explain it to you. I will not submit to such 
treatment. 

(6) When the sense demands such a change in tense, use should for 
shall, and would for -will ; as, We would help you if we could. You 
should always do your best. 

(a) In speech it is good form for one not to express his determination 
oftener than necessary. " I shall attend to the matter," and " You will 
remember it, " are often more forcible than "I will attend to the mat- 
ter," and u You shall remember it." 

(6) In interrogative sentences, shall denotes that the act is under 
the volition or control of some power other than the agent, and will 
implies that the act is under the control of the agent : — 

Shall I do it ? Shall you do it ? Shall he do it ? Will you do it ? 
Will he do it ? 

In a question, will is never used literally in the first person, for the 
speaker never has occasion to inquire of any one else concerning his own 
will. Rhetorically, however, will may be used in the first person with 
fine effect. The figure is Interrogation, according to which a sentence hav- 
ing the form of a question is in reality a very positive declaration. If the 
question contains a negative particle, it implies an affirmative answer, and 
without such a particle it suggests a negative answer. Thus, " Will I not 
reprove him ? " means "I certainly shall reprove him ; " and " Will I allow 
him to continue? " means "I certainly shall not allow him to continue." 

(c) Will is often used in the third person to make a general truth more 
emphatic than the present tense form of the verb would make it : Roses 
will wither. Mistakes will occur. 

(d) When the verb is in the subjunctive mode, shall in any person 
denotes only futurity ; as, If he shall remain till Saturday. But in, He 
shall remain till Saturday, shall expresses futurity, and also the deter- 
mination of the speaker. 

(e) Many a sentence in which will or would is correctly used requires 
shall or should when an adjective or adverb is added to express the addi- 
tional idea contained in will or would. Thus, "I will accompany you," 
expresses the idea of futurity, and the additional idea of the speakers 
pleasure ; but when we add an adjective or an adverb to express the 
speaker's pleasure, then will should be changed to shall ; as, " I shall be 
pleased to accompany you," or "I shall gladly accompany you." "I 
will be pleased to accompany you" is incorrect. It would mean, if any- 
thing, that it would require an effort for the speaker to be pleased. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 107 

MODEL SENTENCES. 

(1) I will take it = futurity + determination. 

(2) You shall take it = futurity + determination. 

(3) He shall take it = futurity + determination. 

(4) I shall take it = futurity. 

(5) You will take it = futurity. 

(6) He will take it = futurity. 

(a) Observe closely for a while how shall, will, should, and would are 
used in literature, and try to use these words in the same manner in your 
own speech and writing. 

PKOPEKTIES OP VEEBS. 

351. The verb has several modifications enabling it to 
express corresponding differences of thought or idea. 
These modifications are called properties. 

352. A verb may be used so that its subject stands for 
the doer of an act, or it may be used so that its subject stands 
for the receiver of an act, as in, — 

(1) The man makes boxes. 

(2) Boxes are made by the man. 

This distinction or property of verbs is voice. 

353. It has been explained that every sentence expresses 
a thought and that every thought refers to a reality. We 
have now to note that sentences differ as to the manner in 
which they relate thought to reality. This property is mode. 

354. A sentence may declare the fact of agreement be- 
tween thought and reality ; as, — 

He sings. He does not sing. — Indicative Mode. 

355. A sentence may express the idea of will as deter- 
mining the relation between thought and reality ; as, — 

Study your lessons. — Imperative Mode. 

356. A sentence may express, (a) doubt as to the agree- 
ment, or (6) certainty as to the disagreement, between 
thought and reality ; as, — 



108 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

If he studies he will learn. If he had studied he would have learned. — 
Subjunctive Mode. 

357. Verbs are inflected to mark differences in time ; as, — 

I study, I studied, I shall study. 
This property is tense. 

358. Verbs vary their form according to the person and 
number of their subjects ; as, — 

I study, He studies, They study. 

These properties are person and number. 

VOICE. 

359. Voice is the property of the verb that shows whether 
its subject represents the doer or the receiver of the act. 

There are, therefore, two voices, active and passive. 

360. Active Voice is the voice in which a verb makes its 
subject represent the doer of an act ; as, — 

Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. 
Mrs. Lawson makes good butter. 
Susan laughs. 

361. Passive Voice is the voice in which the verb makes its 
subject represent the receiver of an act ; as, — 

Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. 
Good butter is made by Mrs. Lawson. 

(a) The same thought may be expressed by the sentence, whether 
its verb is in the active or the passive : — 

Homer wrote the Iliad = The Iliad was written by Homer. 

(6) Only verbs that express action can properly be said to have 
voice. This excludes all pure copulative verbs. 

(c) An intransitive verb is in the active voice if it expresses action. 
Any verb is in the active voice when its subject represents the doer of an 
act. Whether the action terminates on an object or not is another matter. 

(d) The active voice is changed to the passive by making the ob- 
ject in the active become the subject in the passive. Thus, — 

The bird broke the bottle = The bottle was broken by the bird. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 109 

(e) When the verb is in the active voice, the noun that represents 
the doer of the act is its subject, and is in the nominative case, and the 
noun that represents the receiver of the act is its object, and is in the ob- 
jective case ; as, The boy bought the trunk. But -when the verb is in 
the passive voice, the noun that represents the receiver of the act is its 
subject, and is in the nominative case, and the noun that represents the 
doer of the act is in the objective case, usually governed by the preposi- 
tion by ; as, The trunk was bought by the boy. 

(/) Transitive verbs have the two voices, while intransitive verbs 
have only the active. An intransitive verb can never be changed to the 
passive voice, because it has no object in the active to become the subject 
in the passive. 

(g) The elements of the passive voice are : — 

(1) some form of the verb to be, 

(2) before the past participle, 

(3) of a transitive verb. 

(h) It is convenient to use the passive voice, either when we do 
not know the actor, or when we wish to conceal the actor ; as, The shawl 
was taken yesterday. 

(i) The passive form of transitive verbs is sometimes used by 
enallage for the active ; as, The melancholy days are come (for have 
come). 

(j) The active voice is sometimes used by enallage for the 
passive ; as, The house is building (for is being built). 

EXERCISES. 

362. (1) Tell the voice of each verb. 

363. (2) Change the voice, preserving the meaning of the 

sentence. 

1. God made the world. 

2. Henry built the fence. 

3. How do you learn your lessons ? 

4. The oration was delivered by Bryan. 

5. He appears honest. 

6. She walks rapidly. 

MODE. 

364. Mode is the property of the verb that denotes the 
manner in which the thought is related to the reality. 

(a) Languages differ as to the number of their modes. 



110 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(6) Mode is a grammatical term. It does not mean either the 
manner of the action or the manner of the thought. Mode is the maimer 
in which the verb expresses the relation between thought and reality. 



FINITE MODES. 

365. The different manners in which a finite verb may 
express the relation between thought and reality may be 
included under the three modes defined below, — Indica- 
tive, Imperative, Subjunctive. 

(a) In addition to these the Potential Mode is commonly named. The 
fundamental idea of this mode is power or ability, and it is designated by 
the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, should. It is 
simpler, however, to class all these forms under the Indicative Mode, 
remembering that may, can, and must are present, and might, could, would, 
and should are past. 

(b) Some teachers prefer to omit mode altogether : first, because the 
forms, which in other languages are an unerring guide, in modern English 
cannot be relied upon, and secondly, because the distinction of mode is 
one of the most difficult to grasp. 

366. Let us try to grasp the distinction underlying 
mode, keeping in mind that Mode is the manner in which 
the verb expresses the relation between thought and reality. 

367. By reality is meant anything that exists, and any 
relation between things. All things exist in relation. To 
think is to represent in thought the relations of things. 
A thought is a mental representation of a relation. 

368. Now let us think of a real gate, a pasture gate, 
whether it is open or shut. 

369. (1) I may think of the gate as open when it is 
open and as not open when it is not open. When a sen- 
tence thus expresses a thought as agreeing with the reality 
it represents, its verb is in the Indicative Mode. 

370. The Indicative is the mode in which the verb ex- 
presses agreement of thought with reality; as, The gate is 
open. The gate is not open. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. Ill 

(a) When the reality is regarded as variable and the thought is uncer- 
tain, then the expression takes the form of a question, and the verb is in 
the indicative mode ; as, Is the gate open ? 

(6) The auxiliary verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, and 
should express contingencies corresponding to uncertain realities, and 
since they express thought as agreeing with reality, the verbs containing 
these forms are in the indicative mode, — may, can, and must being the 
signs of the present tense, and might, could, would, and should of the past. 
Or, if one wishes to do so, he may have a distinct mode, the Potential, 
for these seven forms. 

(c) The indicative mode is used in principal sentences or in subordi- 
nate clauses ; as, The gate is open. He says the gate is open. 

371. (2) We may regard will as determining the rela- 
tion between the thought and the reality. When a sen- 
tence thus expresses a thought so that its agreement with 
reality is a matter of will, its verb is in the Imperative Mode. 

372. The Imperative is the mode that expresses the idea 
of will as determining the relation between thought and real- 
ity ; as, — 

(1) Open the gate. (2) Do open the gate. 

373. In sentences like (1) the relation depends upon 
the will of the speaker ; in those like the second, upon the 
will of the person addressed. 

(a) When the speaker regards himself as addressing an inferior, the 
verb expresses a command; as, Open that gate at once. When the 
speaker conceives the person to whom he speaks to be an equal, the verb 
expresses an entreaty or exhortation ; as, Do open the gate for us. When 
the speaker regards himself as addressing a superior, the verb expresses 
supplication or prayer ; as, Open thou the gates of life for us. 

(6) The subject of an imperative verb is usually an unexpressed sec- 
ond person pronoun ; but it may be a noun or pronoun of the third per- 
son, or a pronoun of the first person ; as, [you] Open the gate. Open be 
the gates. Be it open. Open we the gates. 

(c) The imperative mode is used exclusively in principal sentences 
or in substantive clauses directly quoted ; as, Open the gate. He said, 
" Open the gate." 

374. (3) Or we may wish to express (<x) doubt as to the 
agreement, or (6) certainty as to the disagreement, between the 



112 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

thought and the reality. Then the verb is in the Subjunctive 
Mode. 

375. The Subjunctive is the mode that expresses (a) doubt 
as to the agreement, or (6) certainty as to the disagreement, 

between the thought and the reality ; as, — 

(a) If the gate is open, the cows are out. 

(6) If the gate had been open, the cows would be out. 

376. The subjunctive mode has just these two ideas 
and no others. We must be careful to distinguish them. 
Note the two sentences. In (a) the meaning is that we 
are uncertain whether the gate is open or not, while (J) is 
a special way of saying we are certain the gate had not been 
open. 

(a) In English the subjunctive mode is used only in subordinate sen- 
tences. In earlier English the subjunctive mode had distinct forms differ- 
ing from those of the indicative, but there has been a constant and 
growing tendency toward the same form for both modes. In the time 
of Addison we find almost exclusively such forms as, — 

If the gate be open, the cattle are out. 

If he have the preparation, he can do the work. 

But to-day these forms are the exception. Instead of them we find, eight 
times out of ten, and in the best English, 

If the gate is open, the cattle are out. 

If he has the preparation, he can do the work. 

In the King James translation of the Bible the subjunctive forms are 
retained throughout, but in the Twentieth Century New Testament their 
places are taken by indicative forms. 

(a) This passing of the subjunctive form must not be taken to mean 
the disappearance of the subjunctive mode. Mode is not form, but idea 
or meaning, and this idea or meaning has remained and will remain 
unchanged. 

(5) We have one trace of the subjunctive form that is likely to 
remain in the language, because it marks an important distinction that 
could not otherwise be made. This is the use of the subjunctive were 
instead of the indicative was when we wish to express (6), the second 
idea of the subjunctive mode : u If the gate were open, the- cows would be 
coming out." This means that now the gate is not open. Here the past 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 113 

form expresses present time. However, when, we wish to express (a) the 
first idea of the subjunctive mode, we occasionally use were, but more often 
was: "If the gate were (or was) open, the cows went out." Here the 
past form expresses past tense, and the meaning is that we are uncertain 
whether at the past time referred to the gate was open or not. 

(c) When the subordinate sentence expresses an admission, which is 
not a subjunctive idea, the verb takes the indicative form and is in the 
indicative mode. Note the difference : — 

If he is (or be) careless, he will fail (subjunctive). 
If he is careless, he is popular (indicative) . 

(d) Commonly but not always the subjunctive mode is preceded by 
if, though, although, lest, unless, except, whether, till, until, that. But oc- 
casionally the subjunctive mode is used without the sign expressed ; as, — 

Were I in your place, I should insist upon it. 

Had he sent me the money, I should have repaid it. 

And sometimes, as explained above in (d) we may have the sign without 
the subjunctive mode. 

(e) The substitution of the indicative form for the subjunctive, when 
the verb is in the subjunctive mode, has never been, and is not now, 
nearly so frequent in poetry as in prose. 

INFINITE MODES. 

377. The Infinitive and the Participial are those modes in 
which the verb assumes the action, being, or state, instead of 
affirming it, and retains the same form regardless of the per- 
son and number of its subject. (See articles 483-540.) 

TENSE. 

378. Tense is that property of the verb by which it denotes 
the time of a relation. 

(a) While mode has reference to the manner of expression and not to 
the manner of reality or of thought, tense denotes the time of a real rela- 
tion, not the time of the thought or of the expression. 

379. For convenience time is spoken of as past, present, 
and future. Corresponding to these we have the three 
Primary Tenses : — 

Present, I give ; Past, I gave ; Future, I shall give. 



114 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

380. Each of these primary tenses has a perfect tense, 
thus making three Secondary Tenses : — 

Present Perfect, I have given. 
Past Perfect, / had given. 
Future Perfect, I shall have given. 

381. The Present is the tense that denotes present time ; 
as, I give. 

382. The Present Perfect is the tense that may denote any 
period of past time that extends up to, and ends with, the 
present ; as, I have given. 

383. The Past is the tense that denotes indefinitely any 
past time ; as, I gave. 

(a) To locate the action definitely the past tense must be assisted by 
an adverbial element ; as, I gave it yesterday. I gave it before I was 
asked. 

384. The Past Perfect is the tense that denotes the time of 
any past event more definitely by representing it as completed 
before the occurrence of some other past event ; as, I had 
given the money when the request was made. 

385. The Future is the tense that denotes indefinitely any 
future time ; as, I shall give. 

(a) To locate the action definitely the future tense must be assisted 
by an adverbial element ; as, I shall give it to-morrow. I shall give it 
when he needs it. 

386. The Future Perfect is the tense that denotes the time 
of any future event more definitely by representing it as com- 
pleted before the occurrence of some other future event; as I 
shall have given the money before he asks for it. 

FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

387. The Present Tense has three forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote habitual action, or what is true at 
all times : I give. (2) The progressive form to denote 
that the action is now going on : I am giving. (3) The 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 115 

emphatic form to express a thought with emphasis : I do 
give. 

(a) The progressive form denotes continuous action. 

(6) What is known as the historical present is often used in the nar- 
ration of past events to add vividness or animation ; as, " Up steps 
(stepped) the policeman and places (placed) us all under arrest." 

(c) The present is sometimes used instead of the future when the 
future is thought of as present ; as, — 

When he has (shall have) his lesson, he may recite. 

(d) The present tense is used to express general truths, or what is 
thought of as true at all times ; as, — 

God is merciful. Mars is a planet. The product of the sum and 
difference is equal to the difference of the squares. 

388. The Present Perfect Tense has two forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote any period of past time extending 
up to, and ending with, the present : I have given. 
(2) The progressive form to denote the continuation of 
the act through the period of time referred to : I have 
been giving. 

389. The Past Tense has three forms : (1) The simple 
form to denote indefinitely any past time : I gave. (2) 
The progressive form to denote the continuation of an 
action through any past period not extending up to the 
present : I was giving. (3) The emphatic form to express 
emphasis : I did give. 

390. The Past Perfect Tense has two forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote that the act was completed in a 
period of past time that extended up to, and ended with, 
some other specified past time : " I had given the money 
before he asked for it." (2) The progressive form to 
denote that the action continued through the above named 
period of past time : " I had been giving presents before 
the children came." 

391. The Future Tense has two forms : (1) The simple 
form to denote indefinitely the time of any future event : 



116 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

I shall give. (2) The progressive form to denote the con- 
tinuation of the act through some period of future time : 
I shall be giving. 

{a) Both the past tense and the future, when the verb is not assisted 
by adverbial modifiers, denote time indefinitely. 

392. The Future Perfect Tense has two forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote that an act will be completed in -a 
period of future time that extends up to, and ends with, 
some other specified future time : I shall have given it 
before he requests it. (2) The progressive form to denote 
that the action is to continue through the above named 
period of future time : I shall have been giving presents an 
hour when George calls for his. 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES IN EACH OF THE MODES, ACTIVE 
VOICE. 

393. The Indicative Mode has six tenses : — 

(1) Present : Simple form of the verb : I give. 

(2) Past : Past indicative of the verb : I gave. 

(3) Future : Shall or will before the simple, form : I shall give. 

(4) Present Perfect : Have, hath, has, or hast before the past 

participle : I have given. 

(5) Past Perfect : Had or hadst before the past participle : I 

had given. 

(6) Future Perfect : Shall have or will have before the past 

participle : I shall have given. 

394. The Imperative Mode has one tense : — 
(1) Present : Give. 

395. The Subjunctive Mode commonly has three tenses, 
Present, Past, and Past Perfect; but it may be used in 
any of the six tenses. The signs are the same as in the In- 
dicative. 

396. The Infinitive Mode has two tenses : — 

(1) Present : To before the simple form : To give. 

(2) Present Perfect : To have before the past participle : To 

have given. 



INFLECTION OF VERBS. 117 

397. The Participial Mode has two tenses : — 

(1) Present: the form that ends in -ing : Giving. 

(2) Present Perfect : Having before the past participle : Hav- 

ing given. 

398. Let the class change each verb given above to the pas- 
sive voice without changing its tense. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

399. Person and Number are the properties according to 
which the verb changes its form to suit the person and 
number of the subject : I teach, He teaches, They teach. 

(a) Person and number belong only to finite verbs. Neither an infini- 
tive nor a participle ever changes its form for the person or number of its 
subject. 

(&) As a rule English verbs are modified by person and number only 
in the present tense, but the verb to be is an exception. 

400. Style is sometimes named as one of the properties 
of verbs. There are four styles or forms of the verb : — 

(1) Common : I give. (2) Progressive : I am giving. 

(3) Solemn: Thou givest. (4) Emphatic: I do give. 

INFLECTION OF VEKBS. 

401. Inflection is any variation in form that a verb may 
undergo to indicate voice, mode, tense, person, number, and 
its principal parts. 

402. Conjugation is the orderly arrangement of all or 
any part of a verb's inflection. 

Let the class study with care the inflection of the verbs 
be, have, and take, as given below. This will best enable 
us to know, from the form of a verb, its voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number. It will be helpful also for the pupil 
to note in each sentence whether the verb is transitive or 
intransitive, attributive or copulative, active or passive. 



118 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



INFLECTION OF THE VERB BE. 

Principal Parts. 
Present Indicative, am ; Past Indicative, was ; Past Participle, been. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. I am. 

2. You are. 

3. He, she, or it is. 

Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. You were. 

3. He, she, or it was. 

Singular. 

1. I shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. He, she, or it will be. 



Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. They will be. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 2. You have been. 

3. He, she, or it has been. 3. They have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 2. You had been. 

3. He, she, or it had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1 . I shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 

3. He, she, or it will have been. 



Plural. 

1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 

3. They will have been. 



INFLECTION OF VERBS. 119 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or do thou be. 2. Be, or do you, or ye be. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be or am. 1. If we be or are. 

2. If you be or are. 2. If you be or are. 

3. If he, she, or it be or is. 3. If they be or are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were or was. 1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 2. If you were. 

3. If he, she, or it were or was. 3. If they were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If you had been. 2. If you had been. 

3. If he, she, or it had been. 3. If they had been. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Being. Present Perfect, Having been. 

(a) The omitted forms of the solemn style, "thou art," " thou wast," 
etc., may readily be supplied by the student. 

(b) The auxiliary verbs, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, 
may be classed under the Indicative Mode, or, if the teacher prefers, 
under a separate mode, the Potential. 

(c) Of the subjunctive tenses, only the three most commonly named 
are given above, but a verb in any of the six tenses may be in the Sub- 
junctive Mode. 

(d) Bear in mind that in the past subjunctive we always use were if 
we wish to express (6), but that if we wish to express (a), we may use 



120 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

either were or was. Thus, " If it were red, we could see it," means that 
it is not red. But, "If it were (or was) red, I was mistaken," means I 
am doubtful about its color. See article 375. 

(e) Note that while the past subjunctive, as just explained, sometimes 
denotes present time, the present subjunctive sometimes refers to future 
time. In "If I be (or am) under arrest, I wish to act accordingly," 
the present subjunctive expresses present time ; but in " If I be eaten by 
the heathen, that will end my ministry," the present subjunctive clearly 
expresses future time. 

(f) As the verb be is never transitive, it has no passive forms. 

INFLECTION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

Principal Parts. 
Present Indicative, have ; Past Indicative, had ; Past Participle, had. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. You have. 2. You have. 

3. He, she or it has. 3. They have. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. You had. 2. You had. 

3. He, she, or it had. 3. They had. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have. 1. We shall have. 

2. You will have. 2. You will have. 

3. He, she, or it will have. 3. They will have. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I have had. 1. We have had. 

2. You have had. 2. You have had. 

3. He, she, or it has had. 3. They have had. 



INFLECTION OF VERBS. 121 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had had. 1. We had had. 

2. You had had. 2. You had had. 

3. He, she, or it had had. 3. They had had. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. You will have had. 2. You will have had. 

3. He, she, or it will have had. 3. They will have had. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Have, or do have. 2. Have, or do have. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If you have. 2. If you have. 

3. If he, she, or it have, or has. 3. If they have. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had. 1. If we had. 

2. If you had. 2. If you had. 

3. If he, she, or it had. 3. If they had. 

PAST PERFECT. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had had. 1. If we had had. 

2. If you had had. 2. If you had had. 

3. If he, she, or it had had. 3. If they had had. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, to have. Present Perfect, to have had. 



122 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, having. Present Perfect, having had. 

(a) To save space the passive forms of the verb have are omitted. 
Let the class supply them. 

INFLECTION OF THE VERB TAKE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present Indicative, take ; Past Indicative, took ; Past Participle, taken. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I am taken. 1. We are taken. 

2. You are taken. 2. You are taken. 

3. He, she, or it is taken. 3. They are taken. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I was taken. 1. We were taken. 

2. You were taken. 2. You were taken. 

3. He, she, or it was taken. 3. They were taken. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be taken. 1. We shall be taken. 

2. You will be taken 2. You will be taken. 

3. He, she, or it will be taken. 3. They will be taken. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been taken. 1. We have been taken. 

2. You have been taken. 2. You have been taken. 

3. He, she ? or it has been taken. 3. They have been taken. 



INFLECTION OF VERBS. 123 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been taken. 1. We had been taken. 

2. You had been taken. 2. You had been taken. 

3. He, she, or it has been taken. 3. They had been taken. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been taken. 1. We shall have been taken. 

2. You shall have been taken. 2. You shall have been taken. 

3. He, she, or it shall have been 3. They shall have been taken. 

taken. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. You or thou be taken. 2. Be you or ye taken. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be or am taken. 1. If we be or are taken. 

2. If you be or are taken. 2. If you be or are taken. 

3. If he, she, or it be or is taken. 3. If they be or are taken. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were or was taken. 1. If we were taken. 

2. If you were taken. 2. If you were taken. 

3. If he, she, or it were or was 3. If they were taken. 

taken. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been taken. 1. If we had been taken. 

2. If you had been taken. 2. If you had been taken. 

3. If he, she, or it had been taken. 3. If they had been taken. 



124 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, to be taken. Present Perfect, to have been taken. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, being taken. Present Perfect, having been taken. 

(a) For the inflection in the active voice see the verb have, page 124. 

(b) The class may readily supply the solemn forms, such as, Thou 
art taken ; Thou hast been taken, etc. 

(c) In the passive voice, as in the active, a subjunctive verb may 
have any of the six tenses. Let class illustrate, noting carefully whether 
the sentence expresses (a) or (&), the first or the second subjunctive idea, 

(d) To save space the active forms of the verb take are omitted. Let 
the class supply them. 

MODEL FOR PARSING VERBS. 

(1) Part of Speech. 

(2) Classes, (a) transitive or intransitive ; (5) attrib- 

utive or copulative ; (e) regular or irregu- 
lar. If irregular, give principal parts. 

(3) Properties, (a) voice, (6) mode, (<?) tense, (d) per- 

son and number. 

(4) Construction (agreement with subject). 

(5) Rule. 

(a) Any uses of a verb not stated in the parsing may be brought out 
by questions and explanations of the teacher and class. 

(1) The cold destroyed the crops. 

(2) We are out of employment. 

(3) The work will have been done. 

(4) They were considered reliable. 

403. (1) Destroyed, verb, trans., attrib., reg., act., 
indie, past, third, sing., to agree with its subj., cold, 
Rule XV. 

404. (2) Are, verb, intrans., cop., irreg., — am, was, 
been, — indie, pres., first, plu., to agree with its subject, 
we, Rule XV. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 125 

405. (3) Will have been done, verb, trans., attrib., 
irreg., — do, did, done, — pass., indie., future perfect, third, 
sing., to agree with its subject, work, Rule XV. 

406. (4) Were considered, verb, trans., cop., reg., pass., 
indie, past, third, plural, to agree with its subject, they, 
Rule XV. 

407. (1) Write the complete parsing of all italicized 
words. 

408. (2) When possible, change active verbs to passive, 
and expand each attributive verb into a copula and an attri- 
bute, without changing the meaning of the sentence. 

(1) William stands in the corner. 

(2) Mary stands erect. 

(3) Martha sits erect. 

(4) Hazel sits gracefully. 

(5) Mr. Johnson has an automobile. 

(6) Get your lessons. 

(7) We hope your brother will get well soon. 

(8) The quinine tastes better. 

(9) If he tastes it once, he will not forget it. 

(10) If I were Charles, I should go to school. 

(11) Whether he wrote the letter does not matter. 

(12) The mountains now are, have always been, and will always be. 

(13) If he were here, we should be happy. 

(14) The work is progressing. 

(15) The railroad is building. 

(16) How do you do, Miss Hill ? 

(17) Hallowed be that spot. 

(18) The bottle was broken. 

(19) If he be alive, it is marvelous. 

(20) The lady is accomplished. 

SYNTAX OF VEKBS. 

409. Rule XV. — A finite verb agrees with its subject 
in person and number. 

I teach. He teaches. They teach. 

(a) A verb having two or more subjects connected by and must be 
plural : She and I are sisters, 



126 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(b) A verb following two or more singular subjects separated by or 
or nor must be singular : He or she comes. Either the blacksmith or 
the carpenter vms here. 

(c) A verb having two or more plural subjects connected by or or 
nor must be plural : They or we were right. The men or the children 
are wrong. 

(d) A verb cannot have two or more subjects differing in number 
or in person and joined by or or nor. When two or more of such 
nominatives stand in a sentence before one verb, the verb agrees with 
the nominative nearest to it, and a verb is understood with each of the 
others : — 

(1) Put the plural subject next to the verb, — Either the boy or the 
girls are here = Either the boy [is here] or the girls are here. 

(2) When we use more than one person, the following order is the 
one commonly observed, — second, third, first : You, he, or I am to 
blame = You [are to blame], he [is to blame], or I am to blame. 

(e) An appositive modifier of the subject expresses a subordinate 
idea, and does not affect the form of the verb : 2, your brother, request it. 
Your brother, I, requests it. 

(/) A verb having for its subject a collective noun conveying the 
idea of unity, must be singular: The class (not each individual) ivas 
divided. 

(g) A verb having for its subject a collective noun conveying the idea 
of plurality, must be plural : The class wear blue and gold (each 
member does). 

(h) The pronoun you, whether singular or plural, always takes a 
plural verb : You are. You were. You have. 

(i) No word in a prepositional phrase modifying the subject has 
any influence over the verb : Your explanation of these words is (not 
are) good. Your questions concerning science are (not is) hard to 
answer. 

(j) Be careful to use the right form of the verb when the sentence is 
introduced by such words as hence and there : Hence arise (not arises) 
several distinctions. There were (not was) some differences between 
them. 

A WRITTEN KEVIEW OF VERBS. 

(1) Define a verb. 

(2) How does the verb differ from all other parts of speech ? . 

(3) State two reasons for giving most attention to the verb. 

(4) What other parts of speech express relation ? How does the 
verb differ from them ? 



A WRITTEN REVIEW OF VERBS. 127 

(5) Illustrate a verb, and a verb phrase. 

(6) What part does the verb play in the predicate of every sentence ? 

(7) Upon what five bases must a complete classification of verbs be 
made ? 

(8) Name the two classes on each basis. 

(9) Define & finite verb and an infinite verb. Give illustrations. 

(10) Write all the infinitives and all the participles of each of the 
verbs, laugh and bring. 

(11) Define transitive verb, intransitive verb. Illustrate each in a 
sentence. 

(12) Criticize (a) A transitive verb is one that requires an object, and 
(&) An intransitive verb is one that does not require an object. 

(13) Give illustrations of (a) a verb commonly transitive may be 
intransitive, (6) a verb commonly intransitive may be transitive. 

(14) Define attributive verb, copulative verb. Illustrate each in a 
sentence. 

(15) Define objective complement, attributive complement. Illustrate 
in sentences. 

(16) What may an attributive complement be ? Illustrate. 

(17) What can you say of the predicate in relation to the copula and 
attribute? 

(18) When is the verb to be copulative ? When attributive ? Illustrate. 

(19) Criticize this classification : Verbs are transitive, intransitive, or 
copulative. 

(20) Name and illustrate three kinds of copulas. 

(21) Give illustration of (a) a prepositional modifier of an attributive 
to be, and (5) the same prepositional phrase used as an attributive com- 
plement after the same verb to be. 

(22) In such forms as, The floor was painted, how do you know 
whether you have an intransitive copulative verb followed by a predicate 
adjective, or a transitive verb in the passive voice f Give ten other illus- 
trations of such ambiguous sentences. 

(23) What is meant by the principal parts of verbs? Illustrate. 

(24) Define a regular verb. An irregular verb. Illustrate each. 

(25) Define a complete, a redundant, and a defective verb. Illustrate 
each. 

(26) Define a strong verb, a weak verb. Illustrate. How do weak 
and strong verbs compare with regular and irregular verbs ? Why are 
strong and weak verbs so called ? 

(27) Name ten irregular verbs that are difficult to use correctly. Give 
the principal parts of each. Use each form in a sentence. 

(28) Define auxiliary verb and principal verb. Name the auxiliary 
verbs. Which of them may be used also as principal verbs ? 



128 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(29) Give the rules for using shall and will, should and would. Illus- 
trate. 

(30) Name the properties of verbs. 

(31) Define voice, active voice, passive voice. Illustrate. Tell how to 
change an active verb to a passive. What kind of verbs can be in the 
passive voice ? 

(32) Criticize (a) A verb is in the active voice when its subject acts, 
and (b) A verb is in the passive voice when its subject is acted upon. 

(33) What verbs do not have voice ? What verbs have two voices ? 
What verbs have only one voice? 

(34) Name the elements of the passive voice. 

(35) Define mode. 

(36) What is meant by reality ? What is a thought f 

(37) Define the indicative mode. Illustrate. 

(38) Define the imperative mode. Illustrate. 

(39) Define the subjunctive mode. Illustrate. 

(40) What are the two ideas of the subjunctive mode, (a) and (b) ? 
Illustrate. 

(41) What can you say about the subjunctive mode having a special 
form different from that of the indicative ? Illustrate. 

(42) What particular subjunctive form remains to-day ? Illustrate. 

(43) What words are commonly the signs of the subjunctive mode f 
When does the indicative mode follow one of these signs ? Illustrate. 

(44) Define infinitive and participial modes. 

(45) Define tense. Name the primary tenses. Define each. Illustrate. 

(46) Name the secondary tenses. Define each. Illustrate. 

(47) What forms, simple, progressive, emphatic, belong to each tense? 

(48) What tenses has the indicative mode ? Illustrate in both voices. 

(49) What tenses has the imperative mode ? Illustrate in both voices. 

(50) What tenses has the subjunctive mode? Illustrate in both voices. 

(51) What tenses has the infinitive mode? Illustrate in both voices. 

(52) What tenses has the participial mode ? Illustrate in both voices. 

(53) Define person and number. Illustrate each. 

(54) Define style. Name and illustrate the styles of verbs. 

(55) Define Inflection, Conjugation, Principal Parts. 

(56) What is parsing ? What are its uses ? Its abuses ? 

(57) State the rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject. Write 
the six most important notes in explanation of the application of the rule. 
Illustrate each. 



THE ADVERB. 129 



THE ADVERB. 

410. In previous lessons we have seen that objects have 
attributes, which it is the business of certain parts of 
speech to express. The parts of speech that most com- 
monly express attributes of objects are verbs and adjec- 
tives. Thus, in 

Henry walks, 
and 

Mary is industrious, 

walks expresses an attribute of Henry, and industrious 
expresses an attribute of Mary. 

411. We have now to see that an attribute may be thought 
of as having an attribute ; as in 

Henry walks rapidly, 
and 

Mary is very industrious. 

Here Henry has the walking attribute, and the walking 
itself has the attribute of rapidity. Mary has the attri- 
bute of industriousness, and this attribute in turn has that 
of degree, how much or how little, expressed by very. 
When the verb is not attributive but copulative, it ex- 
presses only a connection, and this connection may be thought 
of as having an attribute ; as, — 

She is not mistaken. 

412. A word that expresses an attribute of an attribute 
or of a connection is an adverb. 

413. An Adverb is the part of speech that expresses an 
attribute of an attribute or of a connection ; or, 

414. An Adverb is a word that usually modifies a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb. 



130 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

415. As the name adverb suggests, the chief use of this 
part of speech is to modify the verb ; but it may modify : — 

(1) A verb : She writes correctly. 

(2) An adjective : He was exceedingly poor. 

(3) An adverb : He talks very well. 

(4) A prepositional phrase : Can it be done only in your way ? 

(a) Very often an adverb modifies a word not expressed ; as, How 
does she sing ? Well. Here well modifies sings not expressed. 

(6) Yes and no are properly classed as adverbs, but they have no 
modifying use. Each is equivalent to an entire sentence. In, " Are you 
perfect?" I may answer, "I am not perfect" ; or, which is the same 
thing, I may say, No. Often for emphasis both answers are given : No, 
lam not perfect. 

416. Adverbs are classified both as to meaning and as 
to use. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS AS TO MEANING. 

417. As to meaning or idea adverbs include those of time, 
place, manner, degree, cause, purpose, or reason, doubt, affir- 
mation, and negation. 

418. Adverbs of time express the idea of time : ever, never, 
then, when, often, again, recently, instantly, lately, etc. 

419. Adverbs of place express the idea of place : here, 
there, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere, up, down, with- 
out, within, etc. 

420. Adverbs of manner express the idea of manner : well, 
ill, how, somehow, happily, silently, clearly, merely, justly, 
distressingly, creditably, etc. 

421. Adverbs of degree express the idea of degree: much, 
more, less, least, exclusively, sufficiently, enough, etc. 

422. Adverbs of cause, purpose, or reason express the corre- 
sponding idea: why, wherefore, therefore, consequently, 
hereby, thereby, etc. 

423. Adverbs of doubt express the idea of uncertainty or 
of certainty: perhaps, probably, possibly, doubtfully, 
doubtless, certainly, assuredly, etc. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS AS TO USE. 131 

424. Adverbs of affirmation or negation express the corre- 
sponding idea: yes, no, not, aye, nay, etc. 

(a) Modal Adverbs denote the manner of the thinking rather than 
the manner of the action. Thus in, " He came rapidly" rapidly expresses 
the manner of his coming and is an adverb of manner ; but in " Certainly, 
he came," certainly expresses the mode or form of my thought and is a 
modal adverb. 

(b) An interrogative adverb is one that asks a question, and a 
responsive adverb is one that answers a question : How does he write ? 
He writes well. 

(c) An adverbial phrase is a combination of words expressing a 
single adverbial idea : day and night, by and by, out and out, through 
and through, etc. 

{d) An introductory adverb is one without modifying force, used to 
introduce a sentence ; as, — 

There were many men present. 
Well, how do you like him ? 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS AS TO USE. 

425. Except yes and no, and a few introductory words, 
all adverbs have a modifying use. If this is their only use, 
they are called simple adverbs. 

426. A Simple Adverb is one having only a modifying use 

or one used independently \ 

Where does he live ! He lives here. 

He works rapidly. She left us recently. 

427. But some adverbs, in addition to their modifying 
use, have also a connective use. They are conjunctive ad- 
verbs. In the sentence, 

The book lies where you left it, 

the word where modifies the verb left, and joins the sub- 
ordinate clause, where you left it, to the verb lies. It must 
be noted that a conjunctive adverb always occurs in a 
subordinate clause and modifies some word in this clause. 
The subordinate clause itself modifies some part of the 



132 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

principal sentence and is joined to this part by the con- 
junctive adverb. 

428. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that modifies some word 
in a subordinate clause and joins this subordinate clause to 
some part of a principal sentence : — 

You may come when you have time. 

I shall remain where I am. 

Let us work while we have opportunity. 

SUBCLASSES OF SIMPLE ADVERBS. 

429. All simple adverbs are either responsive or inter- 
rogative, 

When may I go ? You may go now. 

430. We see also that an interrogative adverb may 
directly ash a question or indirectly imply a question. We 
have, therefore, the two classes, — direct interrogative ad- 
verbs, and indirect interrogative adverbs : — 

Where are you ? We know where you are. 

When will he buy it ? I asked when he bought it. 

How can he leave his work ? You can guess how he leaves it. 

431. In the three sentences to the left, where, when, and 
how ask direct questions and are called direct interrogative 
adverbs ; in the three to the right, they indirectly imply 
questions, and are called indirect interrogative adverbs. 

(a) The direct interrogative adverb may be used in either a 
principal or a subordinate sentence ; as, — 

Where am I ? Where does he say I am ? 

(b) The indirect interrogative adverb is always used in a subor- 
dinate sentence. 

(c) The clause containing an indirect interrogative adverb is always 
substantive. It may be : — 

(1) Subject of a finite verb : When he came is the question. 

(2) Complement of a finite copula : The question is, when did he 
come ? 

(3) In apposition : The question, When did he come ? has been 
answered. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS AS TO USE. 133 

(4) Object of a transitive verb : We know when he came. 

(5) Object of a preposition : We asked about when he came. 

(6) Subject of an infinitive : We believe when he came to be an im- 
portant question. 

(7) Complement of an infinitive copula : We understand the 
question to be when he came. 

(d) Indirect interrogative adverbs are never connectives. No in- 
terrogative word, direct or indirect, is ever a connective. A substantive 
clause needs no connective. 

SUBCLASSES OF CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

432. Ordinary conjunctive adverbs join an adverbial 
clause to a verb, adjective or adverb; as, — 

You may come when we call you. 

He is happy as a king. 

We are as tired as he. 

These we may call Ordinary Conjunctive adverbs. 

433. Sometimes a conjunctive adverb yams an adjective 
clause to a substantive ; as, — 

The time when the deed was done is not known. 
This is the place where you stumbled. 

434. Such words have the same connective force as 
relative pronouns ; they may, therefore, be called Relative 
Conjunctive Adverbs. 

(a) The ordinary conjunctive adverb is equivalent to two prepo- 
sitional phrases. Thus, 

It remains where we placed it = 

It remains in the place in -which we placed it. 

(b) A relative conjunctive adverb is equivalent to but one phrase. 
Thus, 

He remembers the time when I told him = 
He remembers the time at which I told him. 

(c) Remember : the conjunctive adverb, whether the ordinary or the 
relative, modifies some part of a subordinate clause, and the subordinate 
clause itself modifies some part of the principal sentence. Thus in, 

You may go when the clock strikes, 

the conjunctive adverb when modifies the verb strikes, and the subordi- 
nate clause, when the clock strikes, modifies the verb may go. 



134 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

435. Distinguish the uses of where in : — 

(1) Where is Helen ? — Direct Interrogative Adverb. 

(2) I know where Helen is. — Indirect Interrogative Adverb. 

(3) I work ivhere Helen is. — Ordinary Conjunctive Adverb. 

(4) I like the place where Helen is. — Relative Conjunctive Adverb. 

436. Remember : — 

(1) The direct interrogative adverb directly asks a question and 
may be in either a principal sentence or a subordinate clause. Illustrate. 

(2) The indirect interrogative adverb only implies a question and 
occurs only in a substantive clause. Illustrate. 

(3) The ordinary conjunctive adverb always modifies some word 
in an adverbial clause, and joins this subordinate clause to some part of 
the principal sentence. Illustrate. 

(4) The relative conjunctive adverb always modifies some word in 
an adjective clause, and joins this adjective clause to a substantive in the 
principal sentence. Illustrate. 



COMPAKISON OF ADVEKBS. 

437. Adverbs, like adjectives, have one property, — com- 
parison ; as, loud, louder, loudest; well, better, best ; recently, 
more recently, most recently. 

438. The kinds, methods, and degrees of comparison are 

the same as for the adjective. 

(a) The rule for the comparative and superlative of adjectives applies 
also to adverbs. 

PAKSISG OF ADVEKBS. 

(1) Part of Speech. (4) Degree. 

(2) Classes and subclasses. (5) Construction. 

(3) Comparison. (6) Rule. 

Walk rapidly while the sun shines. 
It is the time when flowers bloom. 

439. Rapidly, adverb, of manner, — rapidly, more rap- 
idly, most rapidly, — positive degree and modifies walk, 
Rule XI. 



EXERCISES FOR WRITTEN PARSING. 135 

440. While, adverb, ordinary conjunctive, of time ; it 
modifies shines and joins the clause, while the sun shines, 
to the verb walk, Rule XI. 

441. When, adverb, relative conjunctive, of time ; it 
modifies the verb bloom, and joins the clause, when flowers 
bloom, to the noun time, Rule XI. 

EXEKOISES FOE WEITTEN PAESING. 

(1) She speaks softly. 

(2) He comes occasionally. 

(3) The child looks lovely. 

(4) Shall we expect them to-day? No. 

(5) Perhaps I shall do it. 

(6) Wlien will they plant the corn ? To-morrow. 

(7) I know when farmers plant corn. 

(8) The time when corn is planted is spring. 

(9) You must have hope when you plant corn. 

(10) How does he work ? 

(11) How well does he work ? 

(12) How is Marjorie ? Well. 

(13) Whether he does the work well or ill I like him. 

(14) Whether he is well or ill we must not mistreat him. 

(15) Can you see where he sits ? 

(16) Did you learn when he came ? 

(17) Can you guess when I disturb you ? 

(18) I know when I am on my feet. 

SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 

442. Rule XL — Adverbs usually modify verbs, adjec- 
tives, or other adverbs. 

(a) As already pointed out, an adverb is sometimes used indepen- 
dently and has no modifying force. 

(6) Sometimes an adverb modifies a prepositional phrase ; as, Must 
you speak only of my mistakes ? 

(c) A double negative should nearly always be avoided ; it has the 
force of an affirmative and in most cases is inelegant ; as, — 

I shall not speak to you no more. 
She has not had no dinner. 



136 GRAMMAB ESSENTIALS. 

In some cases, however, two negative particles are forcible and elegant ; 
as, She is not as inharmonious as we thought. 

(d) After an intransitive verb we use an adverb when we wish to 
express the manner of the action, and an adjective when we refer to the 
condition of an agent ; as, — 

He looks strangely. He looks strange. 

(e) By a kind of poetic license an adjective is sometimes used instead 
of an adverb ; as, The swallow sings sweet from her nest on the wall. 

443. All liabilities to error in the use of adverbs may- 
be included under three heads, — choice, form, position. 

(a) When in doubt as to the fitness of a word, consult a large diction- 
ary or a good book on synonyms. 

A WEITTEN EEVIEW OF ADVEEBS. 

(1) Give what explanation you think necessary to lead up to a proper 
definition of an adverb. Give the definition. 

(2) What may an adverb modify ? Illustrate. 

(3) What are the two bases upon which adverbs should be classified ? 
What are the classes ? Illustrate. 

(4) Name and illustrate six classes of ideas that adverbs may express. 

(5) Explain clearly and illustrate the modal adverb. 

(6) What is an adverbial phrase f Illustrate. 

(7) What are introductory adverbs ? Illustrate. 

(8) What are the two classes of adverbs on the basis of use f 

(9) Define and illustrate a simple adverb. 

(10) Define and illustrate a conjunctive adverb. 

(11) What are the two subclasses of simple adverbs ? 

(12) Define and illustrate responsive and interrogative adverbs. 

(13) Name the two classes of interrogative adverbs. Illustrate each. 

(14) In what kind of sentence may a direct interrogative adverb 
be used ? Illustrate. 

(15) In what kind of sentence does the indirect interrogative adverb 
always occur ? 

(16) In what constructions may the clause containing an indirect 
interrogative adverb be used ? Illustrate. 

(17) Tell what you know about the connective for a substantive clause. 

(18) What are the two subclasses of conjunctive adverbs ? 

(19) Define and illustrate the ordinary conjunctive adverb. 

(20) Define and illustrate the relative conjunctive adverb. 

(21) Each is equivalent to wh&t jjhrases ? Illustrate. 



A WRITTEN REVIEW OF ADVERBS. 137 

(22) What is the modifying force of every conjunctive adverb ? What 
is the modifying force of the clause containing a conjunctive adverb ? 
Make this clear by illustrations and explanations. 

(23) For the purpose of distinguishing them make an important state- 
ment about (a) the direct interrogative adverb, (b) the indirect inter- 
rogative adverb, (c) the ordinary conjunctive adverb, (d) the relative 
conjunctive adverb. Illustrate each statement. 

(24) Write four good statements concerning the only property that 
adverbs have. Illustrate each. 

(25) Write three statements concerning the use of adverbs. Illustrate 
each. 

(26) Name four adverbs difficult to use correctly. Tell how each 
should be used. Illustrate. 



138 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

444. We have seen that the verb may express relation, 
that it may affirm this relation, and may govern the case of 
substantives. In the sentences : — 

He came with the boys, He came with us, 
She sat by her sisters, She sat by them, 

we have another part of speech, represented by the words 
in black type, which, like the verb, expresses relation and 
governs substantives, but, unlike the verb, cannot affirm the 
relation. In each of the sentences given above the two 
italicized words express ideas that are related, and the 
little word in black type expresses the relation and governs 
the case of the following substantive. All such words are 
prepositions. 

445. A Preposition is the part of speech that expresses re- 
lotion without asserting or assuming it and governs a sub- 
stantive called its object. 

CLASSES OF PKEPOSITIONS. 

446. According to their form, prepositions are classified 
into : — 

(1) Simple, — Simple prepositions ; as, for, by, on, at, in, etc. 

(2) Compound, — Consisting of two or more prepositions ; as, from 
above, from under, etc. 

(3) Complex, — Any combination of different parts of speech used as 
a single preposition ; as, to the distance of, to the extent of, etc. 

TEEMS OF EELATION. 

447. Prepositions are relation words, and relation im- 
plies two objects. There are, therefore, always two terms 
of the relation expressed by a preposition. These two 



TERMS OF RELATION. 139 

terras are object and antecedent. The object is the sub- 
stantive governed by the preposition. The antecedent is the 
term to which the preposition joins the substantive. 

448. The object of a preposition is always a substantive. 
It may be, 

(1) A noun : We stood on the bridge. 

(2) A pronoun : He came with us. 

(3) An adverb : In such expressions as, since then, before then, till 
now, to here, for ever, between then and now. (See Whitney's Gram- 
mar, p. 144.) 

(4) An adjective : On high, of old, in vain, for good. 

(5) An infinitive : He did nothing except to criticize us. 

(6) A participle : He is interested in learning engineering. 

(7) A clause : She inquired as to who brought the flowers. 

(a) A phrase sometimes seems to be the object of a preposition in 
such sentences as, " He has lived there since before the war," but it is 
better to regard since before, from above, from under, and like combina- 
tions, as compound prepositions governing the following substantives. 

(b) In all such sentences as, — 

We started before the sun set, 

She came after he left, 

He has been here since the mill exploded, 

He will remain till morning dawns, 

He will not leave until Christmas comes, 

He may die ere the day dawns, 

the words before, after, since, till, until, and ere are prepositions gov- 
erning the following clauses. Each clause may be abridged into a sub- 
stantive that is clearly the object of the preceding preposition, leaving the 
meaning and the relations unchanged ; as, — 

We started before the sun set. We started before sunset. 

449. The antecedent of a preposition is the word the 
phrase limits. It may be, 

(1) A verb : He stands by the post. 

(2) A noun : It is a community of honest men. 

(3) A pronoun : You of the southland are our brothers. 

(4) An adjective : The ground was white with snow. 

(5) An adverb : You have worked sufficiently for to-day. 

(6) An interjection : Alas for maiden, alas for judge. 



140 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

450. The prepositions most commonly used are : 
About, above, according to, across, after, against, along, 
amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, as to, at, before ; 
behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, 
beyond, but, by, concerning, down, during, except, for, 
from, in, into, notwithstanding, of, on, out of, round, save, 
since, till, through, throughout, to, toward, towards, until, 
under, up, with, within, without. 

(a) Of is said to be used nearly as often as all other prepositions com- 
bined. 

PASSING OF PKEP0SITI0NS. 

451. To parse a preposition is to state the part of speech 
to which it belongs, and name the object and antecedent 
between which it shows relation. 

452. It is generally very easy to determine the object of 
a preposition, and often difficult to find the antecedent ; 
but the correct answers to two questions will always reveal 
both. (1) Put the interrogative pronoun what after the 
preposition to find the object ; then (2) put the interroga- 
tive pronoun what before the phrase to find the antecedent. 
Thus, " We came through the woods." (1) Through what? 
Through the woods. (2) What through the woods ? Came 
through the woods. 

(1) Part of speech. (2) Relation. (3) Rule. 
He brought the money with him. 

453. With, preposition, and shows the relation between 
him and brought, Rule XIII. 

(1) Come to the store and go with us. 

(2) Lay your hat on the chair by the post. 

(3) The squirrel jumped from the roof to the tree. 

(4) The horse ran from the door of the barn to the tree by the well. 

(5) I shall leave before you come. 

(6) They remained under shelter of the tree till I unlocked the door. 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 141 



SYNTAX OP PKEPOSITIONS. 

454. Rule XIII. — A preposition shows the relation of 
its object to the word which the phrase modifies. 

(a) When the object of a preposition is omitted, it usually becomes an 
adverb, but sometimes an adjective : It flew up, around, and down again. 
It overlooks the plain beloiv. 

(b) One preposition may have several antecedents : They wash, iron, 
cook, eat, and sleep in the same room. 

(c) One antecedent may have several prepositions : A government of 
the people, by the people, and for the people. 

(d) One preposition may have several objects : A law against fraud, 
falsehood, and violence. 

(e) One object may have several prepositions : She walked up, down, 
and across the hall. 

455. In the use of prepositions all errors may be included 
under Choice, Position, Insertion, or Omission, and Repetition. 

456. In all these cases make frequent use of a large 
dictionary and observe how prepositions are used by the 
best writers. 

A WKITTEN KEVIEW OF PKEPOSITIONS 

(1) Define a preposition. How are prepositions like verbs f How are 
they different? 

(2) Name the classes of prepositions. Define and illustrate each. 

(3) Name the two terms of relation. Define and illustrate each. 

(4) What may the object of a preposition be ? Illustrate. 

(5) What may the antecedent of a preposition be ? Illustrate. 

(6) Illustrate : (a) One preposition may have several antecedents. 
(&) One antecedent may have several prepositions, (c) One preposition 
may have several objects, {d) One object may have several prepositions. 



142 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



THE CONJTTNrCTIOjSr. 

457. In a preceding lesson we saw that a verb may 
express relation, may assert or assume the relation it ex- 
presses, and may govern an object. We saw also that a 
preposition may express relation, and may govern an object, 
but may not assert or assume the relation. Now in each 
of the sentences, — 

(1) Men and women should work, 

(2) We have respect for the law and for the courts, 

(3) Itis pleasant to go and to return, 

(4) The rain descended and the floods came, 

(5) His promise is strong, but his performance is weak, 

(6) They listened because they wished to hear, — 

the italicized parts express ideas that are related, and the word in black 
type expresses this relation and joins the two parts. Such are con- 
junctions. It will readily be seen that conjunctions express relation, but 
cannot assert or assume the relation or govern objects. 

458. A conjunction is the part of speech whose only office 
is to express relation. Or, a conjunction is the part of speech 
whose only office is to connect sentences or parts of sentences. 

459. In the first five sentences above, the conjunctions 
connect coordinate parts ; in the last sentence, the part 
on the right explains, or is subordinate to, the part on the 
left. 

(a) The Conjunction is not the only connective. Relative pro- 
nouns and conjunctive adverbs are connectives, but they have also a 
modifying use, while the conjunction has not. 

(6) The conjunction, like the preposition, is a relation word, be- 
cause it always indicates the relation that the parts connected bear to 
each other. 

(c) The verb also is a relation word, and it is always a connective. 
But the verb, unlike both the preposition and the conjunction, not only 
expresses the relation, but asserts it if it is a finite verb, or assumes it if 
it is an infinitive or a participle. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 143 

(d) The conjunction is like the preposition and unlike the verb 

in being unable to assert or assume the relation ; and is unlike both 
prepositions and verbs in having no governing power over substantives. 

(e) From all these notes taken together, the definition of a conjunc- 
tion clearly appears, — that part of speech whose only office is to express 
relation. 



PAETS CONNECTED. 

460. A conjunction may join : — 

(1) Two independent sentences : Young heads are giddy and 
young hearts are warm. 

(2) Two dependent sentences : The boy waited because he was 
tired and his mother wished to speak to him. 

(3) Two words : Susan and Martha are instructive and interesting. 

(4) Two phrases : The boy walked into the room and beyond the 
desk. He is able to answer many questions and to ask more. 

(5) A subordinate sentence and a part of a principal sentence : 
I shall do the work if he requests it. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

461. Conjunctions must be classified upon two differ- 
ent bases, — use and meaning. 

462. As to use, conjunctions are either coordinate or sub- 
ordinate. 

463. A Coordinate Conjunction is one that joins elements 
having the same grammatical construction. 

464. A Subordinate Conjunction is one that joins a subordi- 
nate clause to some part of a principal sentence. 

(a) The one thing of importance here is to be able to determine in 
every instance whether the conjunction is coordinate or subordinate. 

(6) A coordinate conjunction may join two words, two phrases, or 
two sentences ; as, 

We like Gladys and Flora. 
They came from New York and. from Chicago. 
He has learned to write well and to read fluently. 
Grace sings and Helen plays. 



144 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(c) A subordinate conjunction always joins a subordinate clause to 
a part of a principal sentence ; as, 

He took my book because I requested it. 

She refused to walk farther, for she was out of breath. 

Wallace was so eager to assist that we allowed him to do it. 

465. As to meaning, conjunctions are : — 
Copulative, denoting addition ; as, 

I gave it to you and you are welcome to it. 

466. Adversative, or Disjunctive, denoting opposition; as, 

I gave it to him, but he does not appreciate it. 

467. Correlative, those used in pairs: loth — and, either 
— or, neither — nor; 

Both the boy and his sister applied for work. 

468. Alternative : denoting one or the other of two ; as, 

Margaret or Robert will be chosen. 

469. Causal: one introducing a causal clause; as, because, 

since, for : — 

I like him because he is kind. 

470. Conditional : one introducing a conditional clause ; as, 

He will work if you pay him. 

(a) And, that, and for are often used merely as introductory words 
having no connecting power ; as, 

And it came to pass. 

We hope that you are succeeding. 

For what shall it profit a man ? 

(b) It is only to conform to well established custom that either — or, 
neither — nor, both — and, are called conjunctions. Each pair includes 
two correlative words, the first of which is introductory, and the second 
connective. 

(c) In studying the conjunction, remember that the two all-important 
things are : — 

(1) What does it connect ? 

(2) Is it coordinate or subordinate f 



EXERCISES FOR WRITTEN PARSING. 145 

PAKSING OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

(1) Part of Speech. (3) Subclass. (5) Rule. 

(2) Class. (4) Construction. 

(1) Wealth and culture are powerful motives. 

(2) He declines from principle and from pride. 

(3) She works but he rests. 

(4) I should not want the place either for profit or for pleasure. 

(5) We can lift it if you assist us. 

471. (1) And, conj., coor., cop. ; it connects the two 
nouns, wealth and culture, R. XII. 

472. (2) And, conj., coor., cop. ; it connects the two 
phrases, from principle and from pride, R. XII. 

473. (3) But, conj., coor., disj.; it connects the two 
independent sentences, she works and he rests, R. XII. 

474. (4) Either— or, correlative words, — either is an 
introductory expletive introducing, and or is a coordinate 
alternative conjunction connecting, the two phrases, for 
profit and for pleasure, R. XII. 

475. (5) If, conj., subor., conditional ; it joins the sub- 
ordinate sentence, you assist us, to the verb, can lift, R. XII. 

EXEECISES FOR WRITTEN PASSING. 

(1) Town and country are both desirable. 

(2) To talk about a deed and to do it are not the same. 

(3) With much effort and with great patience it can be done. 

(4) Art is long, but time is fleeting. 

(5) While Aristotle was more of a scientist, Plato was the profounder 
thinker. 

(6) We profit by both his precept and his example. 

(7) Not failure but low aim is crime. 

(8) And now go ahead. 

(9) He was a great man although his father was a failure. 

(10) He listened that he might understand. 

(11) if your own record is clear, you may criticize us. 

(12) Since you have not tried to help yourself, we shall not try to help 
you. 



146 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



SYNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

476. Rule XII. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
or sentences. 

477. A coordinate conjunction may connect: — 

(1) Two independent sentences: Tasks are long and life is short. 

(2) Two dependent sentences : You will secure the position if 
you apply for it and he recommends you. 

(8) Two prepositional phrases : Down the hill and into the river 
he ran. 

(4) Two infinitive phrases : He thinks he is able to write a letter 
and to talk to me at the same time. 

(5) Two participial phrases : He stood looking into the fire and 
humming his favorite tune. 

(6) Two nouns or pronouns : Boys and men came with him and 
me. 

(7) Two verbs, with or without modifiers : He built the house and 
lived in it. Caesar came and conquered. 

(8) Two adjectives : The child is hungry and cold. 

(9) Two adverbs : Speak slowly and distinctly. 

478. A subordinate conjunction always joins a subordinate 
clause to some part of a principal sentence. It may join 
its subordinate clause to, — 

(1) A verb : He failed because he did not ivork. 

(2) An adjective : His record was better than it had ever been before, 

(3) An adverb : He works better than he has ever worked before. 
(a) Though and although are commonly classed as subordinate 

conjunctions joining subordinate clauses to the parts modified. But they 
seem quite as much like disjunctive coordinate conjunctions joining two 
coordinate sentences. Thus, " He fails although he tries" is not much 
different from 

He tries but he fails. 

(5) While is often used as a coordinate disjunctive conjunction 
having about the same force as but ; as, 

He was worthless, while his father was a great man. 

This use of while must be carefully distinguished from its use as a 
conjunctive adverb of time, as in, You may load the hay while I drive. 

(c) That is never a connective when it introduces a substantive 
clause,' as, 



A WRITTEN REVIEW OF CONJUNCTIONS. 147 

I believe that he is an astronomer. 

We never need a connective for a substantive clause, 

(d) When than joins a subordinate sentence to two adjectives or 
adverbs, both must be in the same degree ; as, He is taller and heavier 
than I am. 

(e) Or has two uses: — 

(1) To connect two alternatives; as, You may choose a lady or 
gentleman. 

(2) To precede an explanatory term; as : The President, or chief 
ruler of the United States, is the most powerful potentate in the world. 

(/) When we have a series of parts in the same construction, the 
connective is expressed only before the last ; as, You should employ 
Brown, Smith, Jones, and Johnson. 

(g) And may give to the parts connected, — 

(1) A collective signification ; as, Paul and Peter (together) weigh 
three hundred pounds ; or, 

(2) A distributive signification ; as, Paul and Peter (separately) 
weigh coal. 

A WKITTEN EEVIEW OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

(1) How are conjunctions like prepositions ? How unlike ? 

(2) How are conjunctions like verbs ? How unlike ? 

(3) Define a conjunction. 

(4) What other parts of speech are connectives ? 

(5) Name the classes of conjunctions as to use. Define each. Illus- 
trate. 

(6) Name the classes of conjunctions as to meaning. Define each. 
Illustrate. 

(7) State what parts may be connected by a coordinate conjunction. 
Illustrate. 

(8) State what parts may be connected by a subordinate conjunction. 

Illustrate. 

(9) What do you consider the two most important points to note in 
the study of conjunctions ? 



148 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

479. An interjection is an exclamatory word used to ex- 
press an isolated feeling that comes in between thoughts or 
ideas. 

(a) The word interjection means thrown between. That is, the emo- 
tion is thrown in between thoughts or ideas, and the word that expresses 
it is thrown in between sentences or parts of sentences. 
(6) Interjections have no classes and no properties. 

480. Rule XVII. — An interjection has no grammatical 
dependence on any part of the sentence. 

481. List: alas, alack, heigh, ha, bravo, oh, O, fie, ah, 
ho, are in common use. 

482. A caution : Do not use interjections in the absence of 
corresponding emotions. Do not allow the course of thought 
to be too frequently interrupted by emotions. 

EULES 01 SYNTAX. 

SUBJECTS. 

I. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

II. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case 
when it does not depend upon any other word. 

III. The subject of a participle, when it does not depend 
upon any other word, is in the possessive case or nomina- 
tive absolute: possessive when the participle is used as a 
noun in a dependent construction, and absolute when the 
participle with its subject is used independently. 

OBJECTS. 

IV. The object of a verb is in the objective case. 

V. The object of a preposition is in the objective case. 



KULES OF SYNTAX. 149 

IDENTIFICATION. 

VI. A noun or pronoun used as the complement of a cop- 
ulative verb is in the same case as its subject. Exception. — 
When the subject of a copulative participle is possessive, 
the complement is nominative. 

VII. A noun or pronoun in apposition is in the same case 
as the noun or pronoun it explains. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

VIII. A noun or pronoun limiting another noun signifying 
a different thing is in the possessive case. 

ABSOLUTE CASE. 

IX. A noun or pronoun used independently is in the nom- 
inative absolute case. 

MODIFIERS. 

X. Adjectives limit substantives. 

XI. Adverbs (usually) limit verbs, adjectives, or other 
adverbs. 

CONNECTIVE OR RELATION WORDS. 

XII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and sen- 
tences. 

XIII. A preposition shows the relation of its object to 
the word the phrase limits. 

AGREEMENT. 

XIV. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

XV. A finite verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

XVI. Infinitives and participles, in addition to their 
verbal uses, are used also as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 



150 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

XVII. An interjection does not depend for grammatical 
construction upon any other word. 

EXPLETIVES. 

XVIII. The words and, that, there, for, and some others 
are often used merely as introductory expletives. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 151 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

483. Infinitives and Participles are forms of the verb. 
Thus, from the verb go, we have two infinitives, to go and 
to have gone, and two participles, going and having gone. 
The same is true of any other intransitive verb ; it gives 
us two infinitives and two participles, the present, to go 
and going, and the present perfect, to have gone and having 
gone. Designate the two infinitives and the two partici- 
ples of each of the intransitive verbs, fall, walk, wait, sit, 
lie, rise. 

484. Every transitive verb has four infinitive forms and 
four participial forms, or, we may say, four infinitives 
and four participles, the present and the present perfect 
of each in the active voice, and the present and the pres- 
ent perfect of each in the passive voice. Thus from the 
transitive verb, bug, we have the active infinitives and 
participles, to buy, to have bought, buying, having bought, 
and the passive infinitives and participles, to be bought, to 
have been bought, being bought, and having been bought. 
Write the corresponding forms of each of the transitive 
verbs, sell, see, take, sing, set, raise. Tell whether each 
form is infinitive or participle, present or present perfect, 
active or passive. 

485. The word infinitive means unlimited. As applied 
to verbs it means that their infinitive forms (infinitives 
and participles) are unlimited by person and number. 
That is, an infinitive or a participle retains the same form 
regardless of the person and number of its subject. 
Thus, a finite verb may change its form as we change the 
person or number of its subject : I am, Thou art, He 
is, They are. But an infinitive or a participle never 



152 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

undergoes a change of form on account of a change in the 
person or number of its subject : He wishes me to be, 
I wish thee to be, You wish him to be, We wish them to be; 
I being honest, Thou being honest, He being honest, They 
being honest. Thus, infinitives and participles are unlim- 
ited in form by the person or number of their subjects. 

486. Different Views. — Grammarians do not all give the 
same disposition of infinitives and participles, and it is 
easy for the beginner to be confused by their different 
classifications and different terminology. It will be easy 
for the high school student, however, to see that they all 
mean the same thing. For him the thing of importance 
is to understand the subject ; then he, as well as the rest 
of us, will be entitled to an opinion as to which is the 
most reasonable classification and the most useful termi- 
nology. Thus, some grammarians whose scholarship must 
be conceded class infinitives and participles as nouns and 
adjectives, and then say that incidentally they have some 
of the uses of verbs. The author of this book prefers to 
class them as verbs and then say that incidentally they 
have some of the uses of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 
After a tolerably complete study, the class, with the 
teacher, should make a list of all the uses of infinitives 
and participles, designating which are noun, adjective, or 
adverbial, and which are verb uses. 

487. Again, an attempt has been made to import into 
English grammar the foreign terminology, gerund for 
participles having a substantive use and gerundive for par- 
ticiples having an adjective use; but fortunately it has not 
been successful. It is simpler and also more intelligible, 
in such sentences as, He objects to buying the corn, and 
The man buying the corn is Henry, to say that in the 
first, buying is a participial form of the verb, or a partici- 
ple, having also the construction (use) of a noun, object 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 153 

of the preposition to; and in the second, buying is the 
participial form of the verb, or a participle, having also the 
construction (use) of an adjective limiting the noun man. 
488. For the same reason it is confusing and in no way- 
helpful to speak of a participle having a substantive use 
as "an infinitive in -ing." It is now well settled in Eng- 
lish that certain verb forms are called infinitives, and cer- 
tain other verb forms, participles. As said above, each 
transitive verb has four infinitives and four participles. 
For example, the verb sing gives us : — 

489. Infinitives and Participles 
Present active. to sing singing 
Present perfect active. to have sung having sung 
Present passive. to be sung being sung 
Present perfect passive. to have been sung having been sung 

490. Finite Verbs do not always assert. — A finite verb 
may assert, but it does not always do so. In interroga- 
tive and imperative sentences it does not assert ; as, Am 
I mistaken? Come to see us. Nor can finite verbs be 
properly said to assert in subordinate sentences ; as, I 
shall see you when you come, You believe he is honest, 
The boy that is studious learns, etc. The italicized verbs 
only assume, they do not assert. Now, infinitives and par- 
ticiples never assert, they always assume. This distinc- 
tion, together with the one given in section 485, where it 
is pointed out that infinitives and participles are not modi- 
fied by the person or number of their subjects, make pos- 
sible the following statements : A finite verb is any verb 
form which is personal and which in a declarative sentence 
asserts. Infinitives and participles are impersonal verbs 
that never assert but only assume. 

491. Infinitives and Participles resemble finite verbs in all 
respects essential to the nature of verbs. They fall into 
the same classes, and they have the same properties. 



154 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

492. Transitive and Intransitive are terms used exclu- 
sively to denote classes of verbs. In the sentences, 

We wish to go home, 
and 

The boy going home is Henry, 

the infinitive and the participle are intransitive. In the 

following sentences all the infinitives and participles are 

transitive : — 

We wish to buy corn. 

The man driving the horses is Henry. 

We expect the corn to be bought by him. 

The horses being driven by Henry are ours. 

We believe Henry to have driven the horses many times. 

Henry, having driven the horses, wished to buy them. 

The horses to have been driven by Henry were driven by George. 

The horses having been driven by Henry were bought by George. 

An examination of these sentences will show us also that, 
like other verbs, infinitives and participles, when active 
and transitive, may govern objects. 

493. Attributive and Copulative are other classes includ- 
ing both finite verbs and infinitives and participles. The 
infinitives and participles in the first two of the following 
sentences are attributive ; those in the last two are copu- 
lative : — 

We expect him to farm. 

The man lending the money is Thomas. 

We expect him to be a farmer. 

The man being a lender of money was popular. 

Copulative infinitives and participles may be completed 
by either nouns or adjectives or other expressions so used. 
Give illustrations. 

494. Regular and Irregular. — Every regular verb, like 
plow, has its infinitive and participial forms, to plow, to 
be plowed, plowing, being plowed; also, every irregular 
verb, like see, has its infinitives and participles, to see, to 
have seen, seeing, having seen, . 



INFINITIVES AND PAKTICIPLES. 155 

495. May express Action, Being, or State, as to run, run- 
ning ; to be, being ; to stand, standing. 

496. May be modified by Adverbial and Objective Elements, 
as in, Boys like to save their money when they have earned 
it ; The man driving four horses with one hand is Charles. 

497. Infinitives and Participles have the Properties of Verbs: 
voice, mode, and tense. This is another good test of their 
proper classification. Verbs are the only part of speech 
to which these properties are ever attributed. 

498. Voice.— 

Active. We wish John to drive the horse. 

The boy driving the horse is John. 
Passive. We wish the horse to be driven by John. 

The horse being driven by John is Dick. 

499. Mode. — The mode of infinitives and participles, 
their manner of expression, is that* of assuming, not of 
asserting. Their mode is always clearly shown by their 
form : — 

We wish him to go. The boy going with us is George. 

500. Tense. — Like finite verbs, infinitives and parti- 
ciples are able to mark difference in time. They have 
two tenses, present and present perfect : — 

I believe the boy to be honest. 

The boy bringing the bucket is Paul. 

I believe the boy to have been honest. 

Paul, having brought the bucket, went after the cows. 

Tense is so exclusively a property of verbs that some 
grammarians regard it as their distinguishing character- 
istic. Thus, in the German language, the verb is called 
the Zeit Wort or time word. 

501. Time Expressed by the Tenses. — In a general way 
tense means time, but, as already pointed out, it cannot be 
said that a certain tense always denotes a corresponding 
time. We have already noted that infinitives and par- 



156 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

ticiples have two tenses, present and present perfect. 
What is the time expressed by each ? 

(1) In the first place, the time expressed by the infini- 
tive and the participle often has no reference whatever 
to that of the finite verb in the same sentence. This may 
be seen from the following : — 

The horse to be sold was valuable. 

The horse to be sold is valuable. 

The horse to be sold will be valuable. 

The man selling the popcorn was a millionaire. 

The man selling the popcorn is a millionaire. 

The man selling the popcorn will be a millionaire. 

(2) In the next place, when the time of the infinitive 
and participle does depend upon that of the finite verb, the 
following rules hold without exception: — 

502. First. — The time of the present infinitive and present 
participle is present or future with reference to that of the 
finite verb in the same sentence, 

503. Second. — The time of the perfect infinitive and per- 
fect participle is previous to that of the finite verb in the 
same sentence. 

504. These sentences illustrate the first rule : — 

He came (past) to the front to hear (later). 
He comes (present) to the front to hear (later) . 
He will come (future) to the front to hear (later). 
He came (past) stumbling (same time). 
He comes (present) stumbling (same time). 
He will come (future) stumbling (same time). 

505. Illustrations of the second rule are given in the 

following sentences : — 

He believed (past) me to have been mistaken (previously). 
He believes (present) me to have been mistaken (previously). 
He will believe (future) me to have been mistaken (previously). 
Having sold his store (previously) he bought a farm (past) . 
Having sold his store (previously) he buys a farm (present). 
Having sold his store (previously) he will buy a farm (future) . 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 157 

506. The Subject of an Infinitive. — We cannot assert 
action without asserting it of an actor, nor can we assume 
action without assuming it of some actor. In such sen- 
tences as, 

We believe him to be truthful, We believe Mm to be a liar, 

him should be parsed as the subject of the infinitive, not 
as the object of believe. The object of the transitive verb, 
believe, is the abridged clause, "him to be truthful," or 
" him to be a liar," just as " he is truthful " is the object 
of believe in the sentence, "We believe he is truthful." 

507. In What Case? — What is the case of the subject of 
the infinitive ? In the sentence, " I wish to learn," I is 
the subject of the finite verb, wish, and of the infinitive, 
to learn. The finite verb governs it, so it is in the nomi- 
native case. But in the sentence, " I wish her to learn," 
her, the subject of the infinitive, is not dependent upon 
any other word and is in the objective case. Hence the 
following rule : When the subject of an infinitive depends 
also upon some other word in the sentence, it is governed by 
that other word and not by the infinitive ; but when the sub- 
ject of an infinitive does not depend upon any other word, it 
is in the objective case. 

508. Why? — Why is the subject of an infinitive in the 
objective case ? Simply because it is the subject of the 
infinitive and not at all on account of the influence of any 
other word in the sentence. This is made clear by the fol- 
lowing illustration : Take the sentence, " We believe him 
to be truthful." Him is evidently objective. What makes 
it objective? Believe, or to be? If believe does it and to 
be has nothing to do with it, then the pronoun should re- 
main objective so long as it stands in the same relation to 
believe, no matter what to be may be changed to ; and if to 
be does it and believe has nothing to do with it, then the 
case of the pronoun will change when to be is changed to a 



158 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

finite verb, even if the pronoun does stand in the same re- 
lation to believe. Try it. 

We believe him to be truthful. 
We believe he is truthful. 

Therefore, the subject of an infinitive is in the objective 
case on account of the infinitive, just as the subject of a 
finite verb is in the nominative case on account of the 
finite verb. That is, the language has so grown. 

509. Examples of infinitives having subjects different 

from those of the finite verb : — 

We believe him to be mistaken. 

She wishes them to leave. 

Whom do you wish to have your library ? 

He is the man whom you thought to be me. 

510. Examples of infinitives whose subjects are the 

same as those of the finite verb: — 

He does not intend to be mistaken. 

She wishes to leave. 

Who wishes to have your library ? 

He is the man who was thought to be I. 

511. What the Subject of an Infinitive may be : — 

(1) A noun : We wish Paul to sing for us. 

(2) A pronoun : We wish him to sing for us. 

(3) A participle : He thinks cheating me to be beating me. 

(4) An infinitive : He thinks to cheat to be to rob. 

(5) A clause : He thinks that I say nothing to be evidence that I 
know nothing. 

512. The Subject of a Participle. — When the subject of a 
participle depends upon any other word in the sentence, 
it is governed by that other word and not by the participle, 

as ill — Mary laughing said no. 

I like the man talking to you. 

He spoke to the child carrying the bucket. 

Mary is in the nominative case, the subject of said; man 
in the objective case, object of like; child in the objective 
case, object of to. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 159 

513. But when the subject of a participle does not 
depend upon any other word in the sentence, it is in the 
possessive case or nominative absolute : — 

Harry'' s leaving pleased all of us. 

We do not like your objecting to him. 

We object to his quibbling over it. 

Jones having gone away, we engaged Smith. 

Our general having been wounded, we lost the battle. 

514. In the first three sentences the participles have 
substantive uses in dependent constructions, and the 
subject of each is in the possessive case ; but in the last 
two the participles have no connection with any part of 
their sentences except their subjects, and the subjects, 
Jones and general, are each in the nominative absolute 
case. The following rule sums it all up : When the subject 
of a participle does not depend upon any other word in the 
sentence, it is in the possessive case or nominative absolute : 
possessive when the participle has a substantive use in a 
dependent construction, and absolute when the participle, 
together with its subject, is used independently. 

515. The Complement of a Copulative Infinitive. — It has 
been explained that an infinitive, like a finite verb, may 
be attributive or copulative ; as, " We expected him to 
speak" "We expected him to be the speaker." When 
copulative, it is completed by an adjective or a sub- 
stantive expression ; as, " We thought him to be well," 
" We thought him to be a doctor." When the complement 
of an infinitive is a substantive, what is its case ? The 
same as that of the subject, — usually objective but some- 
times nominative : — 

We thought George to be John (objective). 
We believed him to be you (objective). 
We expect to be gentlemen (nominative). 
We were thought to be you (nominative). 
I was thought to be she (nominative) . 



160 GRAMMAK ESSENTIALS. 

It is good to remember : The complement of a copula- 
tive verb is in the same case as its subject. To this rule 
there is but one exception. See article 267. 

516. The Complement of a Copulative Participle. — When 
the subject of a copulative participle is nominative abso- 
lute, the complement is nominative absolute; as, "He 
being a scholar, we believed him." When the subject of 
a copulative participle is nominative, the complement is 
nominative ; as, "He being a scholar secured the position." 
But when the subject of a copulative participle is posses- 
sive, the complement is not possessive, but nominative ; 
as, "His being a scholar was not questioned." This is 
the one exception referred to in the foregoing section. 

517. The Double Nature of Infinitives and Participles. — 
They always perform the office of verbs ; and in addition 
to its verbal use, every infinitive and participle has also 
the use of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. This addi- 
tional use is commonly called its construction. An infini- 
tive or a participle is first parsed as a verb and is then 
said to have the construction of a noun, an adjective, or 
an adverb. An infinitive or a participle has the construction 
of a noun when it is used as nouns are used; the construction 
of an adjective when it is used as adjectives are used; the 
construction of an adverb when it is used as adverbs are used. 
Discuss the construction of each infinitive and participle 
in the following sentences : — 

I like to read good books. 

We came to assist the children. 

The coat to be worn by Henry is on Samuel. 

Doing things is better than dreaming dreams. 

The boy sitting by you is my cousin. 

He came in scraping his feet on the floor. 

518. Construction of a Noun. — An infinitive or participle 
may be used in any construction a noun has except the 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 161 

possessive. Discuss the infinitives and participles in the 
following sentences: — 

(1) Subject of a finite verb. 

To study grammar is necessary 
Studying grammar is necessary. 

(2) Object of a transitive verb. 

We like to study history. 
We like studying history. 

(3) Object of a preposition. 

We like it all but to be criticized. 
We like it all but being criticized. 

(4) The complement of a finite copula. 

To study grammar is to learn it. 
Studying grammar is learning it. 

(5) The subject of another infinitive. 

Some think to study grammar to be disagreeable. 
Some think studying grammar to be disagreeable. 

(6) The complement of an infinitive copula. 

We believe to study a subject to be to understand it. 
We believe studying a subject to be understanding it. 

(7) The subject of a participle (absolute). 

To rest having been forbidden, we worked. 
Besting having been forbidden, we worked. 

(8) The complement of a copulative participle (absolute*). 

To rest being to sit in the sun, we chose to work (absolute). 
Resting being sitting in the sun, we chose working (absolute). 

(9) In apposition. 

To study anything diligently, to give it sufficient attention, is to master 
it. 

Studying a thing diligently, giving it sufficient attention, is mastering 
it. 

Note. — A substantive in any of these eight constructions may have 
an infinitive or a participle in apposition with it. Illustrate in writing. 



162 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

519. Construction of an Adjective. — Recall the different 

uses of adjectives and compare with them the uses of the 

following italicized infinitives and participles : — 

He gave me permission to use his tools. 
The dog barking at you is Towser. 
The men are to blame. 
Coal is to be found in Pennsylvania. 

The ideas expressed are usable permission, barking dog, 
blamable men, and findable coal ; and these are clearly 
adjective ideas. Neither an infinitive nor an active parti- 
ciple can be used as a resultant adjective. 

520. Construction of an Adverb. — Whenever an infinitive 

or a participle performs any of the offices of an adverb, it 

is said to have the construction of an adverb : — 

Purpose : We came to learn. 
Manner : Everything went to suit me. 

He came stumbling over the doorstep. 
Degree : The child is old enough to walk. 
Cause : We grieved to hear it. 
Mere futurity : He fell to rise no more. 

Note very carefully and make or find sentences to illus- 
trate the following : 

(1) An infinitive commonly has the construction of a 
noun or an adverb, very rarely that of an adjective. 

(2) A participle commonly has the construction of an 
adjective or a noun, very rarely that of an adverb. 

521. How to determine the Construction of an Infinitive or 
Participle. — In most cases it is easy enough to determine 
the construction of an infinitive or a participle. It is 
helpful to observe what part of speech the word is that 
takes the place of the infinitive or participle. Thus, "He 
likes to learn" is almost equivalent to "He likes educa- 
tion." "Time to come is beyond our control" is the same 
as "Future time is beyond our control." "He is skillful 
in building houses" expresses the same thought as "He 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 163 

is skillful in architecture." Another means of determin- 
ing the construction of an infinitive or participle is to 
expand it into a clause and observe what use the clause 
performs. Thus, " He desires me to see you" is the same 
as " He desires that I see you" in which that I see you is a 
substantive clause. u He came here to learn grammar" is 
equivalent to " He came here that he might learn grammar" 
in which that he might learn grammar is an adverbial 
clause. " The boy sitting on the bench struck me" is the 
same as " The boy that sits on the bench struck me," in 
which that sits on the bench is an adjective clause. In 
many sentences, of course, the construction is not so appar- 
ent. 

522. The Construction belongs to the Entire Clause or Phrase. 
— When an infinitive or a participle is used in a clause 
or phrase, it is the entire clause or phrase that has the 
construction of a noun, adjective, or adverb ; as, " He 
wishes me to teach history" " The man selling the apples is 
Mr. Jones." 

523. A Participle becomes a Noun when it is immediately 
preceded by the and followed by of; as, "The closing of 
the bank caused much alarm." Here, and in all similar 
sentences, the word, though retaining the participial form, 
is not a participle at all, for it has no verbal use. It is 
merely a participial noun. 

524. A Participle becomes a Direct Adjective when it is 
made to limit a noun immediately following it ; as in 
" The driving winds," " The roaring cannon," " The rush- 
ing waves." The italicized words have no verbal force 
and are mere adjectives. 

525. A Participle becomes a Predicate Adjective. — When 
a word having the form of an active participle performs 
the office of a predicate adjective, it loses its verbal nature ; 
as, " Wealth is deceiving" " Time is fleeting" " Children 



164 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

are amusing " Such as the italicized words are participial 
predicate adjectives. Passive participles frequently have 
the construction of predicate adjectives; as, "He lives 
there loved by everybody." 

526. A Participle becomes a Resultant or Factitive Adjective ; 
as in, " His peculiarities made him amusing" "Iron's den- 
sity makes it deceiving." 

527. The Progressive Form of a Finite Verb is formed with 
the present active participle and some form of the verb 
to be ; as, " Marshall is plowing the field," " We are reciting 
our lessons." Be careful to distinguish the progressive 
form of a finite verb, as in, " He is pleasing me," from 
the copula and predicate adjective, as in, " Your conduct 
is pleasing" And both of these must be distinguished 
from the copulative verb followed by a participle with 
the construction of a predicate noun; as in, "Doing what 
a man wants done is pleasing him." 

528. It is difficult to distinguish — 

{a) An infinitive with the construction of a direct adjective from one 
with the construction of a noun in apposition, as in — 

(1) My desire to teach is now satisfied. 

(2) My task to teach is pleasant. 

(b) An infinitive with the construction of a predicate adjective from 
one with the construction of a predicate noun, as in — 

(1) George is to blame (blamable). 

(2) Iron is not to be found (findable) here. 

(3) To die is to cease to live (death is the cessation of life). 

(4) The way to believe is to investigate (investigation). 

529. Infinitives and Participles are alike in — 

(1) Both are verbs. 

(2) Both are unlimited by person and number. 

(3) Both assume, and not assert, action, being, and state. 

(4) Both express time relatively, not absolutely. 

(5) Both have the constructions of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 165 

530. Infinitives and Participles are unlike in — 

(1) The participial form of a verb may lose its verbal nature and be- 
come a mere noun, "The painting of pictures," or a mere adjective, 
"Howling wolves"; while the infinitive, though it is used either sub- 
stantively, " To paint pictures is difficult," or adjectively, " The time to 
paint pictures is when one feels like it," never loses its verbal nature. 

(2) The infinitive usually has the sign to before it, while the only sign 
of the participle is its form. 

(3) The infinitive commonly has the construction of a noun or an ad- 
verb, and very rarely that of an adjective ; while the participle com- 
monly has the construction of an adjective or a noun, and very rarely 
that of an adverb. 

531. The Sign of the Infinitive is to. When it immedi- 
ately precedes the infinitive form of the verb, it is merely 
a sign and has no governing power. It cannot be con- 
sidered a preposition. 

532. The sign to is often lengthened into in order to; as, 
"He came in order to learn" In such sentences, in order 
to learn should be parsed as the infinitive. It gives a 
wrong meaning to divide the phrase. 

533. The sign is omitted after the active verbs make, let, 
see, hear, also after the adverbs rather and lief; as, " Make 
him come in," " I had as lief not be," etc. The omission 
of the sign is optional after dare, help, need, and please, 
and some others. 

The omission of the sign after make and bid is confined 
to positive expressions. One would say, " Bid him come 
in," or, "Bid him not to come in." 

When the verbs have and see are followed by a passive 
infinitive, the verb be, as well as the sign to, is often sup- 
pressed ; as, "They would have him [to be] killed" "I 
saw him [to be] sentenced" 

(a) The student must learn from language itself what is the best usage. 
He will often find that the sign is expressed in a sentence, which, when put in 
a slightly different form, would require the sign to be omitted ; as, " I dare 
you to do it; " "Dare you do it ? " "I dare to do, but I dare not die." 



166 GRAMMAK ESSENTIALS. 

(&) In English, the infinitive without its sign generally has the same 
form as the present indicative, and they are often spoken of together, but 
they are so different in use that they demand separate treatment. 

(c) Need was formerly an auxiliary. It is still used in the third person 
singular without inflection when followed by an infinitive ; as, He need not 
fear. 

534. Independent Use of Infinitives and Participles. — There 
are several absolute constructions of infinitives and parti- 
ciples, but in a sentence like, " To tell the truth, I do not 
like him," the infinitive may be parsed as having the con- 
struction of an adverb of purpose, limiting a verb under- 
stood. Here, to supply the ellipsis, it would read, " To 
tell the truth, [I confess] I do not like him." If we wish 
to parse to tell without supplying anything, all that can 
be done is to say that it is an infinitive used independently. 

535. Definition of Infinitives and Participles. — We began 
our discussion with the preliminary statement, — Infini- 
tives and Participles are forms of the verb. This statement 
is not inaccurate, but cannot be regarded as an exhaustive 
definition. We should be able to do better at the end of 
our discussion. Let us try. 

536. In the first place, infinitives and participles are 
so much more alike than different that it is better to 
define them together ; and in the next place, their defini- 
tion must gather up these four elements : — 

(1) Infinitives and participles are forms of the verb. 

(2) They are impersonal, that is, their form does not 
change with the person and number of their subjects. 

(3) They always assume and never assert. 

(4) In addition to its verbal nature every infinitive 
and participle has the use or construction of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

537. Infinitives and participles are impersonal verbs that 
always assume and never assert, and that have the additional 
uses of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 167 

538. Parsing of Infinitives and Participles. 

(a) Require pupils to state definitely the construction of every infini- 
tive or participle. It is not enough to say of it simply that it has the 
construction of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Expressly state 
whether it has the construction of a noun in the nominative case, or of 
a noun in the objective case ; whether it has the construction of a direct 
adjective, a predicate adjective, or a resultant adjective ; and if it has the 
construction of an adverb, state definitely the idea it expresses, whether 
of time, purpose, cause, etc. Also observe whether it is the infinitive or 
participle alone, or its entire clause, that should be given the construction 
of a noun, adjective, or adverb. 

539. Models for Parsing. 

(1) He has gone to find his hat. 

(2) He came attended by his friends. 

(3) The apples are to be picked to-morrow. 

(4) I believe him to have been mistaken. 

(1) To find, v., trans., attrib., irreg., — find, found, 
found, — act., inf., pres. with the con. of an adv. of pur- 
pose, limiting has gone, Rules XVI and XI. 

(2) [Being] attended, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., part., 
pres., with the con. of a pred. adj., limiting he, Rules XVI 
and X. 

(3) To be picked, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., irf., 
pres., with the con. of a pred. adj., limiting apples, Rules 
XVI and X. 

(4) To have been, v., intrans., cop., irreg., — am, was, 
been, — inf., pres. perf., the entire abridged clause, him 
to have been mistaken, has the con. of a noun in the objec- 
tive case, obj. of believe, Rules XVI and IV. 

(a) This form of parsing does not necessarily give case to the infini- 
tive or participle, but only tells w T hat case would be given to a noun so 
used. But for that matter, there is no good reason for denying case to 
our infinitives and participles, for, in English, case means not form but 
relation. 

. 540. Sentences for Parsing. 

(a) Give the complete written parsing, according to the models, of 
all italicized words, and of all others assigned by the teacher, (b) Sev- 



168 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

eral of the following sentences are ambiguous. See that the pupil under- 
stands all possible meanings of each sentence, and which meaning was 
probably the one intended. See, also, that he can give the parsing cor- 
responding to each meaning. 



(i 

(2 
(3 
(4 

(5; 

(6 
(7 
(8 

(»: 

(io; 
en 

(12 



a typewriter. 



(is: 

(14 

(15; 
(ie; 

(17 
(18 

(is: 

(20 

(21 
lessons, 
(22 
(23 
(24 
(25 
(26 
(27 
(28 
(29 
(30 
(31 
(32 
(33 
(34 
(35 
(36 
(37 



To sin is to suffer. 

He likes to rest. 

They have come to assist us. 

Training horses is making them useful. 

He came tumbling in at the door. 

Let us get permission to remain. 

The boy is anxious to have his trial. 

I come not here to talk. 

Elee from the wrath to come. 

The curious go to church to see ; the vain, to be seen. 

The dog lying by the child is protecting her. 

A letter written with a pen is more desirable than one done on 



Learn to live and live to learn. 

It is wrong to deceive children. 

To see a thing is to believe it. 

He believes trying to be succeeding. 

The task to write an essay was assigned me. 

Lying, telling untruths, is deserving of punishment. 

Sometimes to read seems not to be to understand. 

Studying seems to be learning. 

Having enjoyed reading Shakespeare an hour, let us get our 

She does nothing but criticize. 

The rustling of the leaves frightened us. 

The rustling leaves frightened us. 

The leaves rustling near us frightened us. 

To return home after this, never ! never ! 

Making sport of a poor simpleton, how rude ! 

She is to blame for keeping us waiting. 

Murdering her own child, how dreadful ! 

He sits there growling instead of giving thanks. 

In time to come we may succeed better. 

This campaign seems more exciting. 

He fell to rise no more. 

The child is not well enough to stay. 

He did his work well enough to get the prize. 

The desire to please is worthy of being cultivated. 

Being brief and yet clear, that is most difficult. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 169 

(38) She thought to study to be better than to be scolded. 

(39) Good books and magazines discussing all current events are to be 
found here. 

(40) Please excuse me for writing to you. 

(41) Please excuse me from writing to you. 

(42) We saw him fall. 

(43) We saw him walking down the street. 

(44) He thought merely to ask to be to get what he asked for. 

(45) He is considered to be reliable. 

(46) He blames us for being interesting. 

(47) For one to know what to try to be is as difficult as to be what one 
undertakes to be. 

(48) Suddenly there came a tapping, as o/some one gently rapping, 
rapping at my chamber door. 

(49) Let us try to discover vohat is the cause of our being pleased with 
beauty. 

(50) The author of our being pleased us by filling the world with 
beauty. 

WKITTEN KEVIEW OF INFINITIVES AND FAETIOIPLES. 

(1) Define a verb. 

(2) What infinitive and what participial forms are obtained from 
every intransitive verb ? Illustrate. 

(3) From every transitive verb ? Illustrate. Designate each form 
with reference to both tense and voice. 

(4) What is the meaning of the word infinitive f Show its applica- 
tion to the verb forms we are discussing. Why are participles some 
times called infinitives ? 

(5) Is it better to class infinitives and participles as verbs or as some 
other part of speech ? Why ? 

(6) What is meant by gerund, gerundive, an infinitive in ing ? 
Illustrate. 

(7) Show that finite verbs do not always assert, and that infinitives 
and participles never assert but only assume. 

(8) What general statement can you make about the resemblance of 
infinitives and participles to finite verbs ? 

(9) Show that they have the classes of verbs : (a) Transitive and 
Intransitive, (b) Attributive and Copulative, (c) Regular and Irregular. 

(10) Show that they may express action, being, or state. 

(11) That they may be modified by adverbial and objective elements. 

(12) That they have the properties of verbs : (a) Voice, (6) Mode, 
(c) Tense. 



170 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(13) What tenses do infinitives and participles have ? 

(14) What time is expressed by each of these tenses ? Illustrate. 

(15) What parts of speech may govern objects ? Show that infinitives 
and participles may govern objects. 

(16) What is the only part of speech that has a subject ? Show that 
infinitives and participles have subjects. 

(17) In what case is the subject of an infinitive ? Illustrate. 

(18) What governs the subject of an infinitive ? Prove it. 

(19) What may the subject of an infinitive be ? Illustrate. 

(20) In what case is the subject of a participle ? Illustrate. 

(21) Show that infinitives and participles when copulative maybe com- 
pleted by either adjective or substantive expressions. 

(22) In what case is the complement of an infinitive copula ? Illustrate. 

(23) In what case is the complement of a participial copula ? Illustrate. 

(24) Give the general rule for the case of the complement of a copula- 
tive verb. Illustrate it fully and explain the exception to it. 

(25) What is meant by the double nature of a part of speech ? 

(26) In addition to their verbal use, what other offices do infinitives 
and participles perform ? Illustrate. 

(27) Name other parts of speech that perform double offices. Explain 
and illustrate. 

(28) Illustrate with original sentences all the different noun or substan- 
tive constructions infinitives and participles may have. 

(29) Show their different adjective uses. Their adverbial uses. 

(30) What constructions do infinitives commonly have ? 

(31) What constructions do participles commonly have ? 

(32) How do you determine the construction of an infinitive or partici- 
ple ? Illustrate. 

(33) Show that the construction properly belongs to the entire clause or 
phrase in which the infinitive or participle is found. 

(34) When does a participle become a noun ? Illustrate. 

(35) When does a participle become an adjective, — direct, predicate 
resultant ? Illustrate. 

(36) Distinguish the progressive form of a finite verb from a copula and 
a predicate adjective having the same form as a present active participle. 

(37) Distinguish an infinitive with the construction of a direct adjective 
from one with the construction of a noun in apposition. 

(38) Distinguish an infinitive with the construction of a predicate 
adjective from one with the construction of a predicate noun. 

(39) In what are infinitives and participles alike ? Unlike ? 

(40) Tell what you know about the sign of the infinitive. Discuss the 
independent or absolute use of infinitives and participles. 

(41) Define infinitives and participles. 



ANALYSIS. 171 



ANALYSIS. 



541. Grammatical Analysis is such a separation of the sen- 
tence as will show how its parts are related. 

542. The value of analysis may be very great. 

(1) It impresses the principles governing the construc- 
tion of the sentence. 

(2) It leads the student to relate ideas, and to see that 
their relations determine the relations of the parts of the 
sentence that express them. One's analysis of a sentence, 
therefore, will always depend upon his understanding of 
its thought. 

(3) It enables the class and the teacher to compare 
different understandings. 

(4) It cultivates clearness, accuracy, precision, and 
facility of expression. 

(5) It leads to the habit of general analytic thought. 

(6) It is exceedingly interesting. 

543. Form of Analysis. — It is always mental. It may be 
also either oral or written. Again, written analysis may 
be in full or by diagram. Writing the analysis in full 
affords valuable exercise in punctuation, capitalization, 
spelling, and neatness, but the teacher should not require 
more of it than is necessary to the end sought. 

544. Analysis by diagram, like all analysis, and indeed 
like all grammar, is often objected to as a shameful waste 
of time ; but in almost every case the objection comes 
from persons who have attempted to teach grammar and 
failed, from teachers of other subjects jealous of the in- 
terest they see manifested in grammar, or from persons 
who are not teachers at all and never have been, but gratu- 
itously volunteer their pedagogical omniscience for the 



172 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

guidance of us who are teachers. All real teachers may- 
be pardoned if they decline to be disturbed by such objec- 
tions or to take them seriously. 

545. A caution, however, is in place. Just for the rea- 
son that analysis, whether oral, written, or by diagram, is 
interesting, it is likely to be overdone. This the teacher 
and class must try to avoid. 

546. To analyze a sentence is to describe it fully as a sen- 
tence, to designate its elements, describe them, state their 
relation to one another and to the sentence as a whole. 

547. This makes it necessary, as a preparation for 
analysis, to study (1) the classification of sentences and 
(2) the classification of elements. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

548. (^4) Sentence is the expression of a thought in words. 
Sentences are classified as to rank, as to structure, and as to 
use. 

549. (J.) As to rank, sentences are Principal or Sub- 
ordinate. 

550. (^l) Principal Sentence is one not used as a modifier. 

551. {A) Subordinate Sentence is one used as an element 
in a principal sentence. 

(a) " He is reliable " is a principal sentence, but in u I believe he is 
reliable," he is reliable is a subordinate sentence, and "I believe he is 
reliable" is a principal sentence. 

552. A Subordinate Sentence is called also a clause. 

553. Clauses are substantive, adjective, adverbial, accord- 
ing as they perform the office of a noun, adjective, or ad- 
verb. 

554. A Substantive Clause may be : — 

(1) The subject of a verb : 

That he is reliable is certain. 

We believe that he is reliable to be the reason he succeeds. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 173 

(2) The complement of a copula: — 

Our belief is that he is reliable. 

We believe the reason of his success to be that he is reliable. 

(3) The object of a verb : — 

We hope that he is reliable. 

(4) TJie object of a preposition : — 

They are talking about who is most reliable. 

(5) In apposition : — 

The question, Is he reliable, was asked. 

555. An Adverbial Clause may modify : — 

(a) An adverb or an adjective to express degree : — 

He speaks better than lean write. 
He is better than John is. 

(b) A verb to express : — 

(1) Time : The bird sings when the sun shines. 

(2) Place : Wiry not remain where you have prospered ? 

(3) Condition : You will be elected if George votes for you. 

(4) Manner : I copy it as he ivrote it. 

(5) Purpose : We left that he might do his work. 

(0) Beason : We stayed because the boys were there. 

(7) Opposition or concession : Though he were dead, yet shall he live. 

Such clauses are introduced by though, although, notwithstanding, 
and however. Here these words are treated as subordinate conjunctions, 
joining subordinate clauses to verbs ; but, as already stated, good 
grammarians often regard them as coordinate conjunctions, connecting 
disjunctive sentences. 

556. An Adjective Clause always modifies a substantive, 
and may be either restrictive or explanatory. 

557. (1) A Restrictive Clause is one that restricts the pred- 
ication of the principal sentence : " Dogs that are vicious 
should be killed." Here the restrictive clause that are 
vicious keeps the principal sentence from saying : " Dogs 
should be killed." 

558. (2) An Explanatory Clause is one that explains its 
antecedent or adds a thought to the one expressed by the 
principal part of the sentence : — 

Dogs, which are mail's friends, should be well treated. 

The dogs, which had been driving the sheep, came up for their dinners. 



174 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(a) The explanatory clause is called also nonrestrictive. For fuller 
explanation of explanatory and restrictive clauses see p. 69. 

559. (.5) As to structure, sentences are Simple, Com- 
found, Partial- Compound, Complex, Complete, and 
Abridged. 

560. A Simple Sentence is a single statement: — 

The men are honest. Are the men honest ? Men, be honest. 

561. A Compound Sentence is one containing two or more 
sentences of equal rank, joined by one or more coordinate 
connectives : — 

He made a good effort and he succeeded, 
(a) The sentences in a compound sentence may be designated as first 
member, second member, etc. 

562. A Partial-Compound Sentence is one in which either or 
both of the principal elements are compound. 

Henry and James came. Henry came and went. 

563. A Complex Sentence is one containing one or more 
complete subordinate sentences. The subordinate sentence 
itself may be either simple, compound, or complex: — 

We believe you are industrious. 

If you are industrious and she is economical, your future is safe. 

I believe you were industrious when you were young. 

564. A Complete Sentence is one whose verb is finite : — 
You are mistaken. 

565. An Abridged Sentence is one whose verb is an infini- 
tive or a participle : — 

I believe you to be mistaken. You being mistaken, we are lost. 

566. ( (7) As to use, sentences are Declarative, Interrog- 
ative, Exclamatory, and Imperative. 

567. A Declarative Sentence is one that asserts or denies :«— 
You are mistaken. You are not mistaken. 

568. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a question .*- — 
Are you mistaken ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 175 

569. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclamation : — 

How much mistaken you are ! 

570. An Imperative Sentence is one whose verb is in the 
imperative mode : — 

Do not be mistaken. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 

571. Elements are the constituent parts of sentences. 

572. Elements are classified as to rank, as to form, as to 
use, and as to base. 

573. As to rank, elements are Principal and Subordinate. 

574. Principal Elements are those without which a sentence 
cannot exist. They are the Subject and Predicate. 

575. The Subject of a sentence is the part which expresses 
that of which something is predicated. 

(a) The subject is always a substantive. 

(b) The unmodified subject is called the simple subject, and the simple 
subject together with its modifiers is called the complex subject. 

576. The Predicate of a sentence is the part that makes the 
predication. It consists of a copula and an attribute: — 

(1) Iron is heavy. (2) Copper is a metal. (3) Mr. Jones preaches. 

In (1) and (2), is heavy and is metal are the predicates, 
of which is is the copula of each. Heavy and metal are 
the attributes. In (3), the copula and attribute are com- 
bined in the verb, preaches. 

(a) When the verb is copulative, it requires the verb and another word 
to express the predicate ; but when the verb is attributive, it alone may 
be the predicate : — 

Mr. Jones preaches = Mr. Jones is ^preacher. 

(b) A predicate must always be a verb or contain one, since a verb is 
the only part of speech that can predicate. When the verb is copulative, 
then an adjective or a noun, or some other expression so used, may ex- 
press the idea that is predicated, that is, may form the attributive part of 
the predicate ; but, as already stated, when the verb is attributive, it both 



176 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

predicates and expresses the idea predicated, — is both copula and attri- 
bute. See copulative and attributive verbs, pp. 96-99. 

(c) The Attribute, the attributive part of the predicate, is always a 
substantive or an adjective or an expression so used. 

577. As a substantive the attribute may be : — 

(1) A noun : He is a doctor. 

(2) A pronoun : I am he. 

(3) An infinitive : His occupation is to build houses. 

(4) A participle : His occupation is building houses. 

(5) A clause : The question is, can he build the house f 

578. As an adjective the attribute may be : — 

(1) An adjective : She is capable. 

(2) An infinitive : Coal is to be found (findable) in Indiana. 

(8) A prepositional phrase : Our nation is for peace (peaceable). 

579. As to form, elements are Simple, Compound, Partial- 
Compound, and Complex. 

580. A Simple Element is one without modifiers, or thought 
of apart from its modifiers : — 

In " The little boy runs rapidly," rapidly is a simple 
element ; also, boy and runs, when considered apart from 
their modifiers, are simple elements. 

581. A Compound Element is one having a compound base : — • 

Brown and Ball went to Buffalo and to Brooklyn. 

582. A Partial-Compound Element is one a part of whose 
base is compound : — 

He is honest and capable. 

They came from town and country. 

583. A Complex Element is one whose base or some part of 

it is modified : — 

The little squirrels climbed the tall tree. 

We are sitting on the new couch. 

The man that spoke to you is Mr. Swinburn. 

(a) The base of an element is the part of it that expresses its primary 
idea. It may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 177 

(5) When the base of an element is a clause, the form of the 
element is the same as that of the clause. That is, a simple clause is a 
simple element, a compound clause is a compound element, and a complex 
clause is a complex element : — 

A boy that studies gets along. 

A boy that studies and that has hard lessons develops. 

A boy that studies when he has hard lessons gets them. 

(c) As to use, elements are Adjective, Objective, Subjective, Adverbial, 
Attendant, and Connective. 

584. An Adjective Element is one that modifies a substantive 
as an adjective does : — 

The old dog that lay in the corner watched the plate on the table. 

585. An Objective Element is one that is the object of a 
transitive verb : — ■ 

Buy only the books that you wish to use. 

586. A Subjective Element is one used as the subject of a 

verb : — 

We wish him to understand it. 

587. An Adverbial Element is one that has the modifying 
force of an adverb : — 

He came promptly and stood by the table. 

588. An Attendant Element is one that has a logical, but 
not a grammatical connection with the sentence : — 

Night having come upon us, we were obliged to stop. 

589. A Connective Element is one joining two parts of the 
sentence. 

590. There are two classes of connectives : Coordinate 
and Subordinate. 

591. A Coordinate Connective is one that joins elements of 
equal rank; that is, elements in the same grammatical con- 
struction. It is always a coordinate conjunction. 

592. A Subordinate Connective is one that joins elements of 
unequal rank; that is, elements not in the same grammatical 
construction. 



178 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

593. It may be, — 

(1) A subordinate conjunction : He will do it if he says he will. 

(2) A relative pronoun : This is the dog that worried the cat. 

(3) A relative conjunctive adverb : There come times when we 
need all our friends. 

(4) An ordinary conjunctive adverb : Make hay -while the sun 
shines. 

(5) A conjunctive adjective : As are the children of today so will 
be the men and women of tomorrow. 

(a) In all such sentences, as and so must be regarded as correlative 
words having the force of adjectives. The sentence clearly means, "If the 
children are strong, the men will be strong.'''* As performs the offices of 
both i/ and strong, and may therefore be regarded as a conjunctive adjec- 
tive. 

594. (D) As to base, elements are of the First Class, 
Second Class, or Third Class. 

595. An Element of the First Class is one whose base is a 
single word : — 

The furious animal ran rapidly away. 

596. An Element of the Second Class is one whose base is an 
infinitive or prepositional phrase: — 

The city of Warsaw is east of Chicago. 
He wishes to learn to write. 

597. An Element of the Third Class is one whose base is a 

clause : — 

We shall decide it when you return. 

That he is capable is certain. 

The man that helped you is Mr. Bronson. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 179 



EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAMS. 

598. The importance of the subject and predicate of the 
principal sentence is indicated by the heavy line. They 
are written upon the same line and separated by a heavy 
vertical bar to show that they are of equal rank. All 
modifiers are placed below and on lighter lines to show 
that they are subordinate to the subject and predicate. 

599. To distinguish an objective element, let the line on 
which it is written be brought down from one that extends 
over the verb. The subject of an infinitive is written upon 
a line that is joined to one drawn under the infinitive. A 
conjunction is written in a break in a line. A connective 
that is also a modifier must be written so as to show both 
its uses. A dotted line indicates an ap positive element ; a 
parenthesis, an independent element. A short horizontal 
bar is used to separate a copula and an attribute, also to 
separate a preposition and its object. 

600. The relative position of elements in the sentence 
determines the direction of their lines in the diagram : 
Word modifiers turn to the left when they precede the 
term modified ; to the right when they follow it. Phrases 
(prepositional or infinitive) always turn to the right. 
Glauses turn to the right or left, as is most convenient. 

DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 

(1) Sugar is sweet. 

(2) Truth is a virtue. 

(3) Grass grows. 

(4) The little children, eager for the story, gave all their attention to 
the speaker. 

(5) Smith, the merchant, is dead. 

(6) He and I went and we returned. 



180 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



DIAGRAMMED ANALYSIS. 



(1) 



Sugar 



is — sweet. 



(2) 
Truth is— virtue* 



(3) 



Grass 



grows. 



(5) 
Smith, I is — dead. 



merchant, 



(*> 



children 


gave 














at 


Tittle 


to— speaker. 






The 


eager 


















the 






for—story, 










the 







attention 



their 



all 



(6) 



Me % I 



went 



and 

we I returned. 



ORDER OF ANALYSIS, WRITTEN OR ORAL. 

f (a) As to structure. 

(1) Describe the sentence j (ft) Ag tQ uge _ 

(2) Give the complex subject. 

(3) Give the simple subject. 

f (a) Structure. 

(4) Describe its modifiers as to ] (b) Use. 

1 (c) Base. 

(5) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers as above. 

(6) Give the complex predicate. 

(7) Give the simple predicate. 

f (a) Structure. 

(8) Describe the modifiers of the predicate as to | (P) Use. 

[ (c) Base. 

(9) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers as above. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 181 

(a) The pupil should follow the above order with the utmost precision. 
In this way he will most readily learn to analyze, and at the same time 
receive one of the very best of drills in careful, accurate, rapid thinking; 
while to attempt to analyze without following any particular order not 
only defeats the object so far as a lesson in grammar is concerned, but is 
also a very effective means of creating inattention in the class and of 
giving to the pupil himself a habit of carelessness in thought and expres- 
sion. 

WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

(1) Sugar is sweet is a simple declarative sentence, of which Sugar is 
the simple subject, unmodified ; and is sweet is the simple predicate, 
unmodified ; is, the copula, and sweet the attribute. 

(2) Truth is a virtue is a simple declarative sentence, of which Truth 
is the simple subject, unmodified ; and is a virtue is the complex predi- 
cate ; is virtue, the simple predicate, is, the copula, unmodified ; and 
virtue, the attribute, modified by a, a simple adjective element of the 
first class. 

(3) Grass grows is a simple declarative sentence, of which Grass is 
the simple subject, and groivs, the simple predicate. 

(4) The little children, eager for the story, gave all their attention to 
the speaker is a simple declarative sentence, of which The little children, 
eager for the story, is the complex subject, of which children is the simple 
subject, modified by the and little, two simple adjective elements of the 
first class ; also by eager for the story, a complex adjective element of the 
first class, of which eager is the base, modified by for the story, a complex 
adverbial element of the second class, of which for story is the base, of 
which story, the noun, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of 
the first class. 

(5) Smith, the merchant, is dead is a simple declarative sentence, of 
which Smith, the merchant, is the complex subject, of which Smith is the 
simple subject, modified by the merchant, a complex adjective element of 
the first class ; merchant, the base, is modified by the, a simple adjective 
element of the first class, of which sentence also is dead is the simple 
predicate, unmodified ; is the copula, and dead the attribute. 

(6) He and I went and we returned is a compound declarative sen- 
tence, of which He and I went is the leading, partial-compound, declara- 
tive sentence, of which He and I is the compound subject, and and, the 
coordinate connective ; of which sentence, also, went is the simple predi- 
cate. Of the compound sentence, and is the coordinate connective, and 
we returned is the coordinate, simple, declarative sentence, of which we 
is the simple subject, and returned the simple predicate, both unmodified. 



182 



GRAMMAB ESSENTIALS. 



ADJECTIVES, PARTICIPLES, AND PHRASES. 

(1) Gambling is stealing. 

(i) 

Gambling \ is — stealing. 



Gambling has the construction of a subject noun, and stealing that of 
a predicate noun. They are both participles. 

(2) Stooping down, I saw the wounded serpent, writhing in agony of 
death. 

(2) 



stooping 



down, 



saw 






serpent. 




woun 


ded 




writhing 


igony 


the 






in — c 






of — death. 



(3) A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults is a guard against 
committing them. 

(3) 
habit | is — guard 



*1 



of— sincerity 



u 



against — committing 



them. 



in — acknowledging 



faults 



(4) He comes attended by his friends. 

(4) 
He | comes — attended 



by —friends. 



[Being] attended is a passive participle with the construction of a 
predicate adjective. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES,, 183 

(5) I saw the man hung by the mob. 

This sentence is ambiguous, as it may mean either that I saw the man 
after the mob had hung him, or that I witnessed the execution. If the 
sentence conveys the first meaning, man is the object of saw, and [having 
been] hung is a transitive, passive participle in the present perfect tense, 
having the construction of an adjective limiting man. This would be the 
diagram : — 

(5) 



I I saw 



th °\ 



[having been] hung 



by — mob. 



Analysis. — (5) I saw the man hung by the mob is a simple declara- 
tive sentence, of which / is the simple subject unmodified ; of which sen- 
tence, also, saw the man hung by the mob, is the complex predicate ; saw 
is the simple predicate, modified by the man hung by the mob, a complex 
objective element of the first class, of which man, the base, is modified 
by the, a simple adjective element of the first class, and by hung by the 
mob, a complex adjective element of the first class, of which [having 
been] hung, the base, is modified by by the mob, a complex adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class ; by mob is the base, mob, the noun, is modified 
by the, a simple adjective element of the first class. 

(a) But if the sentence means to say I witnessed the execution, then 
[to be] hung is a present, passive infinitive, and man is its subject in the 
objective case. The abridged clause, the man [to be] hung by the mob, 
would be the object of saw. 

(6) War having been declared, we all prepared to fight. 

(6) 
we I prepared 



to fight. 



War 



having been declared. 



War having been declared is logically, but not grammatically, related 
to prepared. 



184 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

Analysis. — War having been declared, ive all prepared to fight is a 
simple declarative sentence, etc. Prepared, the simple predicate, is 
modified by to fight, a simple adverbial element of the second class. It 
is logically modified also by war having been declared, which, grammati- 
cally, is a complex independent or attendant element of the first class, of 
which war, the base, is modified by having been declared, a simple adjec- 
tive element of the first class. 

War is a noun in the absolute case, subject of the participle having been 
declared, which has the construction of an adjective limiting war. 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 

(1) On a grassy bank stood a tall, waving ash, sound to the very 
core. 

(2) God's balance, watched by angels, is hung across the sky. 

(3) Mistaking one for the other, they took him, a little fellow called 
Red Billy, for me. 

(4) There is no harm in children's playing by the roadside. 

(5) There is no harm in children playing by the roadside. 

(6) The pardon of the governor prevented his being hanged. 

(7) I saw a horse covered with a blanket. 

(8) Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief cannot 
be regarded as robbing him. 

(9) Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. 

(10) All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

(11) Her chief business was sauntering about the neighborhood and 
spending her time in idle gossip. 

(12) Ha ! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 

(13) We heard the rain beating upon the doorstep. 

(14) We saw the package opened by mistake. 

(15) Gambling is stealing. 

(16) Did you see the tree struck by lightning ? 

(17) The horse hitched to the carriage was sold for a thousand dollars. 

(18) The burning of the capital was outrageous. 

(19) Have you not seen strong men weeping? 

(20) Having sold his residence in the city, the man moved to his 
farm near the lakes. 

(21) The general having been captured, the army was defeated. 

(22) The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

(23) The writer's being a scholar is not doubted. 

(24) I never heard of that man running for office. 

(25) I never heard of that man's running for office. 

(26) The child stood weeping. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 



185 



(27) The dog came limping. 

(28) The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

(29) No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in 
turbulent mobs. 

(30) The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. 

(31) Spring comes robed in silken green. 

(32) A word can send the crimson color harrying to the cheek with 
many meanings. 

INFINITIVES AND SUBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

(1) To live is not the whole of life. 

(2) A desire to excel in any worthy work is commendable. 

(3) We are ready to go at any time. 

(4) It is impossible to see the sun at midnight. 

(5) He is too gentle to hurt a fly. 

(6) The birds are beginning to migrate. 

(7) William is yet to come. 

(8) She desired me to become a Mason. 

(9) For him to be found in such company is evidence of his guilt. 
(10) I believe for some men to tell the truth to be an impossibility. 



(i) 

To live I is — whole 



the 



(2) 
desire I is — commendable* 



of —life. 



to excel 



(3) 
We | are — ready 



in — worh 



'worthy 



to go 



any 



at— time. 



any 



(4) 
It | is — impossible 



(5) 
He | is — gentle 



to see 



too 



to hurt 



the | 
at — midnight. 



fly- 

3~ 



186 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



(6) 



The 



birds I are beginning 



(7) 
William I is — to come. 



to migrate. 



(8) 

She I desired 



to become — Mason. 



:zr 



(9) 
to be found I is — evidence 



(For) 




—r~ 




of — guilt. 


him 




in — company 


his 














such 







(10) 

4 



1 1 believe 



to be — impossibility. 



to tell 



truth 



(For) men 



To live in (1) has the construction of a noun, subject of is. 

To excel in (2) has the construction of an adjective limiting 

To go in (3) has the construction of an adverb limiting ready. 
To see in (4) has the construction of a noun in apposition with it. 
To hurt in (5) has the construction of an adverb of degree, limit- 



(a) 

(&) 

desire. 

(c) 

(d) 
oo 

ing too. 

(/) To migrate in (6) has the construction of a noun, object of are 
beginning. 

(g) To come in (7) has the construction of a predicate adjective. 

(h) In (8) the clause, me to become a Mason, has the construction of 
a noun, object of desired. 

(i) For in (9) is an introductory expletive, and the clause, for him to 
be found in such company, has the construction of a noun, subject of is. 

(j) In (10), the clause, for some men to tell the truth to be an impossi- 
bility, has the construction of a noun, object of believe. The clause, for 
some men to tell the truth, has the construction of a noun in the objective 
case, subject of the infinitive to be. Men is in the objective case, subject 
of the infinitive to tell, and for is an introductory expletive. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 187 

Analysis. — (8) She desired me to become a Mason is a simple 
declarative sentence, of which She is the simple subject unmodified ; of 
which sentence, also, desired me to become a Mason is the complex predi- 
cate, of which desired is the simple predicate, modified by me to become a 
Mason, a complex objective element of the second class. It is also a 
simple abridged sentence, of which to become Mason is the simple predi- 
cate, of which to become is the copula, modified by me, a simple subjective 
element of the first class ; Mason, the attribute, is modified by a, a sim- 
ple adjective element of the first class. 

(10) For some men to tell the truth I believe to be an impossibility is 
a simple declarative sentence, of which / is the simple subject unmodified. 
Believe for some men to tell the truth to be an impossibility is the com- 
plex predicate, of which believe is the simple predicate, modified by for 
some men to tell the truth to be an impossibility , a complex objective ele- 
ment of the second class ; it is also a complex abridged sentence, of 
which to be impossibility is the simple predicate ; impossibility, the attri- 
bute, is modified by an, a simple adjective element of the first class ; and 
to be, the copula, is modified by For some men to tell the truth, a complex 
subjective element of the second class ; it is also a simple, abridged, sub- 
ordinate sentence, of which to tell, the base, is modified by the truth, a 
complex objective element of the first class ; truth, the base, is modified 
by the, a simple adjective element of the first class. To tell is modified, 
also, by some men, a complex subjective element of the first class, of 
which men, the base, is modified by some, a simple adjective element of 
the first class. For is an introductory expletive. 

DIAGRAM AND ANALYZE. 

(1) These apples are not to be eaten. 

(2) He remained to assist in the work. 

(3) For you to become a grammarian will require much study. 

(4) It is hard work to plow. 

(5) He thinks it delightful to teach grammar. 

(6) My desire to teach is now satisfied. 

(7) My task to teach is pleasant. 

(8) I wish you to be a teacher, but I wish to be a preacher. 

(a) What is the case of the subject of (1) a finite verb, (2) an infini- 
tive, (3) a participle ? 

(&) In what case is the complement of a copulative verb ? 

(c) Name and illustrate three general uses infinitives and participles 
have in addition to their verbal use. 

(d) The (6) and (7) illustrate the difference between an infinitive 
with the construction of an adjective and one with the construction of a 



188 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



noun in apposition, which sometimes troubles a beginner. When an 
infinitive is in apposition, either it or the substantive it modifies may be 
omitted, leaving a sentence that expresses essentially the same thought ; 
as in (7), My task is pleasant, or, To teach is pleasant ; or the two terms 
may exchange places without changing the meaning; as, To teach, my 
task, is pleasant. But in (6) desire and to teach do not mean the same 
thing ; to teach merely designates which desire, — desire for teaching. It 
modifies desire, not like an appositive, but like an adjective. It therefore 
has the construction of an adjective. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

(1) He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 

(2) He has lost the book that I had given to him. 

(3) When he had completed his task, the boy went out to play. 

(4) He announced that the train had arrived. 

(5) That he is the thief is evident. 

(6) His objection was that the boy was too young. 

(7) It has been claimed that Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare's works. 

(8) She is taller than her sister. 

(9) It was so cold that the mercury froze. 

(10) The Indian knows the place where his friends are buried. 

(11) He demanded of them where Christ should be born. 

(12) As is the boy so will be the man. 

(13) We will work till Jesus comes. 

(14) These exercises are as profitable as they are interesting. 

(15) When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord 
will take me up. 

(16) Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was 
meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. 

(17) The wiser he grew the humbler he became. 

(18) I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the reputation 
that he bore among his neighbors. 

(i) 

He I lacks 



time 



to mend 



that 



lacks 



to mourn 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 



189 



Analysis. — (1) He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend is a 
complex declarative sentence, of which He that lacks time to mourn is the 
complex subject ; He, the simple subject, is modified by that lacks time to 
mourn, a simple adjective element of the third class ; it is also a simple, 
declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the simple subject ; 
that is also a subordinate connective, joining the clause, that lacks time 
to mourn, to its antecedent, He; of which subordinate sentence, also, 
lacks time to mourn is the complex predicate, of which lacks is the sim- 
ple predicate, modified by time to mourn, a complex objective element 
of the first class, of which time, the base, is modified by to mourn, a sim- 
ple adjective element of the second class ; of which principal sentence, 
also, lacks time to mend is the complex predicate, of which lacks, the 
simple predicate, is modified by time to mend, a complex objective element 
of the first class, of which time, the base, is modified by to mourn, a 
simple adjective element of the second class. 

(2) 



He I has lost 



ooolt 



the 



I 


had given 






to— him. 




th 


at 



Analysis. — Book is modified by that I had given to him, a sim- 
ple adjective element of the third class; it is also a simple declarative 
subordinate sentence, of which / is the simple subject, unmodified ; of 
which sentence, also, had given that to him is the complex predicate ; had 
given, the simple predicate, is modified by to him, a simple adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class ; also by that, a simple objective element of the 
first class ; it is also the subordinate connective, joining to its antecedent, 
book, the subordinate sentence, that I had given to him. 

(3) 



boy 1 


went 






r £he 1 1 






out 




to 


play. 










he 


had completed 






WJien 





taste 



190 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

Analysis. — Went is modified by when he had completed his task, a 
simple adverbial element of the third class ; it is also a simple, declara- 
tive, subordinate sentence, of which he is the simple subject ; of which 
subordinate sentence, also, had completed his task when is the complex 
predicate ; had completed, the simple predicate, is modified by his task, 
a complex objective element of the first class, of which task, the base, is 
modified by his, a simple adjective element of the first class ; had com- 
pleted is modified also by when, a simple adverbial element of the first 
class ; it is also a subordinate connective, joining the clause, when he 
had completed his task, to the verb, went. 

(4) 



He I announced 



X$haf) train, 



the 



had arrived. 



Analysis. — He announced that the train had arrived is a complex 
declarative sentence, of which He is the simple subject, unmodified ; of 
which sentence, also, announced that the train had arrived is the com- 
plex predicate, of which announced is the simple predicate, modified by 
that the train had arrived, a simple objective element of the third class ; 
it is also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the 
introductory expletive, and the train is the complex subject, of which 
train, the simple subject, is modified by the, a simple adjective element 
of the first class ; of which subordinate sentence, also, had arrived is the 
simple predicate, unmodified. 

(a) A substantive clause needs no connective. 



(That) he 



(5) 
is— thief I is-^evidents 



the 



Analysis. — That he is the thief is evident is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which That he is the thief is the simple subject. It is also a 
simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which TJiat is the introduc- 
tory expletive, he the simple subject, and is the thief is the complex predi- 
cate, of which is thief is the simple predicate, is the copula, unmodified, 
and thief, the attribute, modified by the, a simple adjective element of 
the first class. Of the principal sentence, is evident is the simple predi- 
cate, of which is is the copula and evident the attribute. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 



191 



(6) 



(that) 



objection I was— boy was— young* 



BRs 



the 



Jooj 



Analysis. — Was that the boy was too young is the simple predicate, 
of which was is the copula, and that the boy was too young the attribute ; 
it is also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the 
introductory expletive, and the boy, the complex subject ; boy, the simple 
subject, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first class ; 
of which subordinate sentence, also, was too young is the complex predi- 
cate, was young is the simple predicate, was the copula, unmodified, and 
young the attribute, modified by too, a simple adverbial element of the 
first class. /rr\ 

It I has been claimed 



T 



(fhat) Tiord Hacon 'wrote 



worlcs. 



Shakespeare 's 



Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence, of which It, that 
Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare 's works, is the complex subject, of which 
It, the simple subject, is modified by that Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare' s 
works, a simple adjective element of the third class ; it is also a simple, 
declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the introductory exple- 
tive, Lord Bacon, the simple subject, etc. 

(a) That Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare's works is a substantive clause 
in apposition with it. /QN 

\P) 

/She I is— taller 



than 
sister. | [fo— tall] 



Jter_\ 



Analysis. — Taller is modified by than her sister is tall, a simple 
adverbial element of the third class ; it is also a simple, declarative, sub- 
ordinate sentence, of which than is the connective, etc. 



192 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



(9) 
It I was— -cold 



(10) 



that 

mercury] froze. 



the 









Indian 


knotvs 


place 




The\ 


the 












friends 


are buried. 




his * 
where 





(a) So in (9) is an adverb of degree, modified by that the mercury 
froze, a simple adverbial element of the third class. 

(b) Place in (10) is modified by where his friends are buried, a simple 
adjective element of the third class. 

(c) Where is a relative conjunctive adverb ; its limits are buried and 
joins its clause to the noun place. 



(ii) 



He 



demanded 






of— them 






Christ 


should, be born. 




where. 





(a) Demanded is modified by where Christ should be born, a simple 
objective element of the third class ; it is also a simple, indirect-interroga- 
tive, subordinate sentence, etc. 

(b) Where is a simple, interrogative adverb, but not a connective. No 
connective is needed for a substantive clause. It may be well to remem- 
ber that no interrogative word is ever a connective. 

(12) 
man. \willbeso 



the 



hoy 



the 



is— As 



(a) As ... so are correlative, or responsive, indefinite, descriptive, 
predicate adjectives. They cannot be regarded as adverbs, for is, in 
either sentence, is copulative, not attributive. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 



193 



(o) Is so is the predicate of the principal sentence, is, the copula, and 
so, the attribute. So is modified by As is the boy, a simple adverbial 
element of the third class, of which is As is the simple predicate, is, the 
copula, and As, the attribute. As is also the subordinate connective, 
joining its subordinate sentence to so. 

(13) 



We I will work 



\ till— Jesus comes. 



(a) Will work is modified by till Jesus comes, a simple adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class, of which till Jesus comes is the base, till, the 
preposition, and Jesus comes, the object ; it is also a simple, declarative, 
subordinate sentence, of which Jesus is the simple subject, and comes the 
simple predicate. 

(b) Till must not be parsed as a conjunctive adverb in such sentences. 

(14) 



exercises 


1 are— profitable 




These 




i 

as 












they 


are— interesting- 






as 





(a) As . . . as are correlative or responsive adverbs of degree. First 
as is a simple adverb, and limits profitable. The second as is a conjunc- 
tive adverb ; it limits interesting and joins its subordinate sentence to 
the first as. 

(15) 



Ijord I will take 



the 



then 



up. 



father § mother | forsake 



my 



-my 



When 



194 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



(a) Then is modified by When my father and my mother forsake me, a 
partial-compound, adverbial element of the third class ; it is also a par- 
tial-compound, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which my father and 
my mother is the compound, complex subject, of which my father is 
the first member ; father, the base, is modified by my, a simple adjective 
element of the first class ; my mother is the second member, of which 
mother, the base, is modified by my, a simple adjective element of the 
first class, etc. 

(b) When . . . then are correlative or responsive adverbs of time. 
When is a conjunctive adverb ; it limits forsake, and joins its subordinate 
sentence to then, which is a simple adverb and limits will take. 

(16) 
BlilcTier I arrived 



on—flel& 



the 



of— Waterloo 



WeTtlngton \ was meeting 



Just 



onslaught 



last 



the 



of— Napoleon* 



(a) As is a conjunctive verb of time ; it limits was meeting, and joins 
its subordinate sentence to arrived. 

(6) Just is a simple adverb of degree, and limits as. 

(17) 



Tie 


1 became*— humbler 






the 










Tie 1 grew— wiser 




I 
The 





(a) The first the is a conjunctive adverb of degree ; it limits wiser, and 
joins its subordinate sentence to the second the. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 



195 



(b) The second the is a simple adverb of degree, and limits humbler. 
Humbler and wiser are predicate adjectives ; became and grew, copulative 
verbs. The meaning is, He became humbler to the degree to which he grew 
wiser. 



(18) 
1 1 was grieved 



I 


heard 








he 






had obtained 


when 




how 













reputation 



the 



he 


bore 








am on&— neighbors* 




his 








that 





(a) When is a conjunctive adverb of time ; it limits heard, and joins 
its subordinate sentence to was grieved. 

(6) How is an indirect interrogative or responsive adverb of manner, 
limiting had obtained. How is not a connective. 

(c) That is a relative pronoun, used as the object of bore ; it joins its 
clause to reputation. 

601. Analysis. — I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained 
the reputation that he bore among his neighbors is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which 7 is the simple subject, unmodified ; of which sentence, 
was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the reputation that he bore 
among his neighbors is the complex predicate, of which was grieved is the 
simple predicate, modified by when I heard how he had obtained the repu- 
tation that he bore among his neighbors, a complex adverbial element of 
the third class ; it is also a complex, declarative, subordinate sentence, 
of which I is the simple subject, unmodified ; of which subordinate senr 
tence, also, heard when hoiv he had obtained the reputation that he bore 
among his neighbors is the complex predicate, of which heard is the simple 
predicate, modified by when, a simple adverbial element of the first class ; 
it is also the subordinate connective, joining the complex adverbial clause 
to was grieved; heard is modified, also, by how he had obtained the repu- 
tation that he bore among his neighbors, a complex objective element of 
the third class ; it is also a complex, indirect-interrogative, subordinate 
sentence, of which he is the simple subject, unmodified ; of which subordi- 
nate sentence, also, had obtained how the reputation that he bore among 



196 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

his neighbors is the complex predicate, of which had obtained is the sim- 
ple predicate, modified by how, a simple adverbial element of the first 
class, also by the reputation that he bore among his neighbors, a complex 
objective element of the first class ; reputation, the base, is modified by 
the, a simple adjective element of the first class, also by that he bore among 
his neighbors, a simple adjective element of the third class ; it is also a 
simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which he is the simple sub- 
ject, unmodified, of which sentence, also, bore that among his neighbors 
is the complex predicate, of which bore is the simple predicate, modified 
by that, a simple objective element of the first class; it is also the connec- 
tive, joining its clause, that he bore among his neighbors, to reputation ; 
bore is modified, also, by among his neighbors, a complex adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class, of which among neighbors is the base, and 
neighbors, the noun, is modified by his, a simple adjective element of the 
first class. 

602. Diagram and analyze, giving Particular 
Attention to Italicized Words : — 

(1) The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers. 

(2) There is no need that she be present. 

(3) The opinion that the soul is immortal has been almost universally 
entertained. 

(4) Let it be understood that I will pursue this course no longer. 

(5) The man that cannot put fire into his speeches should put his 
speeches into the fire. 

(6) The sumptuous cities that have lighted the world since the be- 
ginning of time are now beheld only in the pictures of the historian of 
the past. 

(7) The smallest dewdrop that lies on the meadow at night has a 
star sleeping in its bosom. 

(8) We should endeavor to secure the friendship of the Being that 
holds in His hands the reins of the universe. 

(9) Black, smoking ruins marked the place that had been the habita- 
tion of her children. 

(10) Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

(11) This is the house that Jack built. 

(12) Webster was a man that the country will remember with pride. 

(13) There are occasions in life in which a great mind will live years 
of rapt enjoyment in a moment. 

(14) The challenge to combat was given by touching the shield of the 
knight whom the challenger wished to encounter. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 197 

(15) Not a single region that the Indians can now call their own do 
the winds of the Atlantic fan. 

(16) The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honorable 
gentleman has with such spirit of decency charged upon me, I shall 
attempt neither to palliate nor to deny. 

(17) The jingling of the guineas helps the hurt that honor feels. 

(18) It is not always easy to make one's self just what one wishes 
to be. 

(19) He, beneath whose proud footstep Europe trembled, became a 
prisoner on the rock-bound isle of St. Helena. 

(20) God seems to have made him what he was. 

(21) A has three times as much money as B. 

(22) He told me what I never heard of before. 

(23) We are here to hear what you shall say. 

(24) Infidelity gives nothing in return for what it takes away. 

(25) The thief refused to divide what he had stolen. 

(26) Such as are virtuous are happy. 

(27) As many as came were satisfied. 

(28) The son has the same indications as his father. 

(29) Whoever wins may laugh. 

(30) Whatever purifies the heart also fortifies it. 

(31) Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be blest. 

(32) He threatened to shoot whoever tried to stop him. 

(33) Toward night the schoolmaster walked over to the cottage where 
his little friend lay sick. 

(34) There was a time when I was free to roam. 

(35) Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

(36) It is the hour when lovers' vows 
Seem sweet in every whispered word. 

(37) At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

(38) Deep in the wave is a coral grove 

Where the purple mullet and the goldfish rove. 

(39) There is a land of pure delight, 
Where saints immortal reign. 

(40) Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 

(41) And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 



198 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(42) She has sent for the lady she believed to be a governess. 

(43) I knew the man, whom the general appointed captain. 

(44) I saw the man, who we believed was sick. 

(45) The boy closed the shutters, which darkened the room. 

(46) He reached the station just as the train was starting. 

(47) Gather roses while they bloom. 

(48) Smile vjhenever you can. 

(49) While there is life there is hope. 

(50) The ship sailed before the sun rose. 

(51) You may wait till the train arrives. 

(52) You cannot reap until after you sow. 

(53) Improve each shining moment as it flies. 

(54) He has been here ever since his brother came. 

(55) Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend. 

(56) He w&sjust about to start when I called him back. 

(57) She has not been here since you came. 

(58) When I look upon the tombs of the great every emotion of envy 
dies within me. 

(59) Knowledge and timber should not be used much till they are 
seasoned. 

(60) On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

(61) Oh, what a tangled web we weave 

When first we practice to deceive ! 

(62) He sleeps wherever night overtakes him. 

(63) He builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall. 

(64) Where there's a will there's a way. 

(65) As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our 
trangressions from us. 

(66) Man cannot act a more perfidious part than to use his utmost 
efforts to obtain confidence in order to deceive. 

(67) No ax had leveled the giant progeny of the crowded grove in 
which the fantastic forms of withered limbs that had been blasted and 
riven by lightning contrasted strangely with the verdant freshness of a 
younger growth of branches. 

(68) Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gaz- 
ing on this menacing meteor, which blackened their horizon, it suddenly 
burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the 
Carnatic. 

(69) God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, and who cre- 
ated all things, is eternal. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 199 

(70) I knew why he was sent there, how he is to manage, when he is 
to leave, where he is to go next, and ivho is to return home with him. 

(71) When misfortune comes, when the first prospects fade away, and 
when on either hand a listless desert stretches away to the sky, then do 
we realize true friendship. 

(72) The world and affairs have shown me that one half of history is 
loose conjecture, and much of the rest is the writer's opinion. — Wendell 
Phillips. 

(73) On the bosom of a river, 

Where the sun unloosed his quiver, 

And the starlight streamed forever, 

Sailed a vessel, light and free. 

(74) Once again the Greeks arise, 

As in their country's noblest hours. 

603. Discuss the Italicized Words. Diagram and 
Analyze the Sentences, giving Special Attention to 

the Clauses. 

(1) The sun was now resting his huge disk upon the edge of the level 
ocean. 

(2) The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth 
his handiwork. 

(3) The howling of the wolf and the shrill screaming of the panther 
were mingled in nightly concert with the warwhoop of the savages. 

(4) We ought not to sacrifice the sentiments of the soul to gratify the 
appetites of the body. 

(5) You or he is in fault. 

(6) If spring has no blossoms, autumn will have no fruit. 

(7) The man that neglects his business will soon be ivithout business. 

(8) He reads whatever is instructive. 

(9) And all our knowledge is ourselves to know. 

(10) Milton has fine descriptions of morning, but not so many as 
Shakespeare. 

(11) The woods are hushed, the waters rest, 

The lake is dark and still. 

(12) The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; 
The tories own no argument but force. 

(13) The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 

(14) I told you who he was. 

(15) Aristotle tells us that a statue lies buried in a block of marble. 



200 GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 

(16) Tell me not, in mournful numbers, 

Life is but an empty dream. 

(17) He looks as if tired. 

(18) She is as hateful as ever. 

(19) Good morning, gentlemen. 

(20) Many thanks for your kindness. 

(21) As night to stars, woe luster gives to man. 

(22) Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ; 
Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 

(23) Maud Muller on a summer's day 
Raked the meadows sweet with hay. 

(24) For this he shares a felon's cell, 
The fittest earthly type of hell. 

(25) Liberty taught Demosthenes eloquence. 

(26) The pole was six/ee£ long. 

(27) The snow was a foot deep. 

(28) They painted the house white. 

(29) She is without a home. 

(30) He made the ax sharp. 

(31) It is possible that we are wrong. 

(32) Let it be understood that I will pursue this course no longer. 

(33) The characteristic peculiarity of the Pilgrim'' s Progress is that it 
is the only work of the kind that possesses a strong human interest. 

(34) Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? 

(35) III fares the land, to hastening ills &prey, 

Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 

(36) Poets lose half the praise they would have got 

Were it but known what they discreetly blot. 

(37) I have observed that in all ages women have been more careful 
than men to adorn the part of the head that we generally call the outside. 

(38) How long was it before the man came to ? About three quarters 
of an hour. 

(39) The end why God has ordained faith is that his free grace might 
be glorified. 

(40) But the Son of Man hath not where to lay his head. 

(41) For what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose 
his own soul ? 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 201 

(42) The alarmed colonists believed that the yells of the savages min- 
gled with every fitful gust of wind that issued from the interminable for- 
ests of the West. 

(43) From beneath the flap of an enormous pocket of a soiled vest of 
embossed silk, heavily ornamented with tarnished silver lace, projected an 
instrument, which, from being seen in such martial company, might have 
been easily mistaken for some mischievous implement of war. 

(44) The fashion plates of the magazines bear no striking resemblance 
to the humanity that we meet in the street. 

(45) A proper description of the habit of chewing tobacco would ex- 
haust all the filthy adjectives of the language, and spoil the adjectives 
themselves for further use. 

(46) Did it ever occur to you what you are, what you were made for, 
and whither you are going ? 

(47) One of the greatest benefits to be reaped from great financial dis- 
asters is the saving of a large crop of young men. 

(48) Let no man know by your dress what your business is. 

(49) You will receive all sorts of the most excellent advice, but you 
must remember that, if you follow it, and it leads you into a profession 
that starves you, those that gave you the advice never feel bound to give 
you any money. 

(50) You are worth to yourself what you are capable of enjoying ; you 
are worth to society the happi?iess you are capable of imparting. 

(51) The Indian knows where his friends are buried. 

(52) We know not when his life departed. 

(53) I heard why he declined the office. 

(54) How you obtained the money so soon is a mystery to me. 

(55) That the man confessed his guilt when no evidence was found 
against him surprised the court. 

(56) When he gave the fatal blow is a matter of uncertainty. 

(57) Where he concealed the body is a subject that is much discussed. 

(58) The decision was that the prisoner was guilty. 

(59) The general opinion is that Morgan was murdered. 

(60) It is surprising that you care so little for the improvement of 
your mind. 

(61) The question, Are we a nation f is now answered. 

(62) Bursts the moon through glade and greenwood, 

Soft the herald zephyrs play, 

And the waving birches sprinkle 

Sweetest incense on our way. 

(63) I hear that the young prince is an excellent scholar, 

(64) To see you here on such a day surprises me. 



202 



GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS. 



Animals know who love them. 
We know whom we worship. 

(67) Blessed is the man ivhose God is the Lord. 

(68) He accepts what others reject. 

(69) After denying the charge he withdrew in dignified displeasure. 

(70) After the sun rose we continued our march. 

(71) Many a despicable wretch lies under a marble monument deco- 
rated with a flattering epitaph. 

(72) When Dante stood before the gates of Hell, he read over a portal's 
lofty arch the awful inscription : All hope abandon, ye who enter here. 



(65) 
(66) 



605. Outline of Elements < 



EEVIEW OF SENTENCES AND ELEMENTS. 
604. Discuss the value of Analysis. Of Diagrams. 

(Simple (a) 
Compound (b) 
Complex (c) 
I Adjective (d) 
Substantive (e) 
Adverbial (/) 
(First Class (g), word. 
Second Class (h), phrase. 
Third Class (£), clause. 

(1) Define and illustrate, — (a), (6), (c), (<2), (e), (/), (g),(h), (i). 

(2) Define and illustrate : — 

adg, adh, adi; bdg, bdh, bdi ; cdg, cdh, cdi. 
aeg, aeh, aei ; beg, beh, bei ; ceg, ceh, cei. 
afg, afh, afi; bfg, bfh, bfi ; cfg, cfh, cfi. 

(3) Referring to articles 85 and 86, illustrate : — 

ad, ae, af, ag ; 
bd, be, bf, bg ; 
cd, ce, cf, eg. 

(4) Referring to articles 92-94, illustrate : — 

adf, adg, adh ; bdf, bdg, bdh; cdf, cdg, cdh; 
aef, aeg, aeh; bef, beg, beh; cef, ceg, ceh. 



JUL 11 1912 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 244 482 9 



?;*/&• 



